

INVESTIGATIONS FOR NONINDIGENOUS MARINE SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS IN
HONOLULU HARBOR, OAHU, HAWAII



A Report to David and Lucile Packard Foundation
On the First Years Activities



May 15, 1998


L.. G. Eldredge, Ph. D and S. L. Coles, Ph. D.
Department of Natural Sciences
Bernice P. Bishop Museum
1525 Bernice Street
Honolulu, HawaiI 96817
(808) 848-4139
(808) 847-8252 (Fax)


Introduction

A proposal entitled Investigations for Nonindigenous Marine Species Introductions in Honolulu 
Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii was submitted to the David and Lucile Packard Foundation in February 
1997.  The proposed study was to survey the marine biological communities of Honolulu Harbor 
and other basins on the south of Oahu with the goal of detecting introductions of nonindigenous 
species that have invaded these harbor areas.  The baseline information determined by this study 
is to be used in making management decisions regarding the need and means for controlling 
introductions of nonindigenous marine species in Hawaiian waters.  On June 9, 1997, the 
Packard Foundation generously awarded $150,000 for this project, to be granted over a period of 
two years.  The following is a report of the first years activities.

Proposed Activities Completed

The activities proposed for the first year have been completed on schedule.  These include the 
following:

1.  Retrospective Literature Survey

A review of all available resources has found 133 published and unpublished references for 
Honolulu Harbor, 17 references for Keehi Lagoon and 15 for the Ala Wai Yacht Harbor and 
Kewalo Basin.  The annotated bibliography of these references is presented in Appendix A.  Most 
of these references are engineering reports, oceanographic reports, and magazine or newspaper 
articles about the history of the harbors.  Only fifteen of these references contain information 
about the biological communities of these harbor areas, indicating the minimal information that 
has been available.  

2.  Checklist of previous reports for marine organisms in Honolulu Harbor and other basins

The Bishop Museum catalogues for marine invertebrates and fishes have been reviewed for 
specimens that have previously been collected in Honolulu Harbor, Keehi Lagoon, the Ala Wai 
yacht Harbor and Kewalo basin.  Results (Appendix B) indicate only 81 taxa identified to at least 
the genus level to have been catalogued in the museum collections for Honolulu and Keehi 
Lagoon, and only 20 taxa for the Ala Wai and Kewalo Basin harbors.  Most of these were 
crustaceans sampled in the 1920s, 1940s and 1950s.

The list of taxa that were identified for the nine biological surveys that have been conducted 
previously in Honolulu Harbor is given in Appendix C.  A total of 344 taxa have been noted in the 
harbor by all  previous studies from 1972 to 1997, with 244 of these identified to species.  Most of 
the previous reports are from biological monitoring programs conducted in the vicinity of the 
Hawaiian Electric Honolulu Power Station outfall in 1972-74 and 1991-97, with the latter study 
listing a total of 134 taxa and 119 of these identified to species.

3.  Field surveys of stations in Honolulu Harbor and Keehi Lagoon

Benthic samples and visual records of fish populations have been collected at the 15 stations in 
Honolulu Harbor shown in Figure 1, and at five stations in Keehi Lagoon.  Where possible, 
stations have been located at the few sites where previous surveys have been conducted in order 
to effect time series comparisons.  A list of the benthic organisms and fishes that were identified 
on site for Honolulu Harbor is presented in Appendix D.  A total of 118 taxa were identified on 
site, with 103 of these identified to species.  Collected benthic samples have been sorted for six 
of the 15 Honolulu Harbor stations, and laboratory identifications of these sorted specimens will 
begin soon.  

Matching Funds Obtained

In November 1997, matching funds for this project of $160,282 were received from the Dingle-
Johnson program through Hawaii State Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR).  
This funding made it possible to expand the project beyond the tasks specified in the original 
Packard Foundation proposal.  Additional activities include a study of ballast water of commercial 
ships entering Honolulu Harbor and the Barbers Point Deep Draft Harbor, surveys of the biota of 
15 stream mouths along the south shore of Oahu, and extending sampling of marine communities 
to the Barbers Point Harbor.  Continuation of the DLNR matching funds for an additional 
$160,506 has been authorized and allocated for the studys second year 

Information Dissemination and Public Presentations

During 1997-98 Dr. L. G.  Eldredge served on the Hawaii State Marine Alien Aquatic Species 
Task Force, which developed plans for raising public awareness and prevention of marine 
species introductions.  Dr. Eldredge also addressed the Honolulu Propeller Club and the Kona 
SeaGrant evening public lecture series on our marine introduced species program.  He also 
attended the Aquatic Nuisance Species Forum and Workshop at the Smithsonian Environmental 
Research Center under the auspices of the U. S. Wildlife Service.  Dr. S. L. Coles made 
presentations on marine species introductions to the Hawaii Sustainability Summit, the University 
of Hawaii Zoology Department, the Eighth Pacific Science Inter-Congress in Suva Fiji, and the 
Ninth International Zebra Mussel and Aquatic Nuisance Species Conference at Sacramento, CA.  
Mr. R. C. DeFelice presented a paper on introduced sponges at the Pacific Science Inter-
Congress in Suva Fiji and work worked with Dr. Michelle Kelly-Borges in Auckland, N. Z 
developing techniques for identifying introduced sponges.  Drs. Eldredge, Coles and Mr. DeFelice 
also participated in a semester-long postgraduate seminar on marine species introductions 
offered by the U. H. Zoology Department.  Dr. James Carlton addressed the Aquatic Alien 
Species Task Force on recent international developments in control of marine species 
introductions.

Additional Activities Scheduled and Completed

1.  Ballast Water Study

Mr. Scott Godwin from the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center was hired to develop a 
plan sampling ballast water of commercial vessels under consultation with harbor authorities, the 
U. S. Coast Guard and representatives of the commercial shipping industry.  The goal is to 
sample four to six vessels per month until the end of December 1998.  Sampling began the first 
week in March, and as of May 15, 1998 ten vessels arriving from foreign and domestic ports have 
been sampled.  Measurements and analyses consist of determining salinity and dissolved oxygen 
in the ballast water tanks, quantifying plankton by larval type, family or genus and assaying for 
Vibrio (cholera) bacteria that may constitute a health hazard if released in ballast water.  
Research protocols follow those established by the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, 
which has conducted ballast water studies at the Norfolk, Virginia U. S. Naval Base and at Port 
Valdez, Alaska.  This information, combined with a profile to be developed of typical vessel traffic 
patterns to the area, will be used to evaluate the risk of marine nonindigenous species 
introductions into Oahus harbors through release of ballast water from commercial vessels. 

2.  Stream Mouth Biota

The fishes, benthic invertebrate and insect fauna of 15 stream mouths along the south and west 
shores of Oahu are being surveyed and assessed for their nonindigenous species component 
and the food resources that they provide for commercial and sport fishes.  Along with an ongoing 
similar study being conducted in Pearl Harbor, this survey will provide the first comprehensive 
analysis of the proportion of nonindigenous biota in estuarine areas that has been conducted in 
Hawaii.  To date ten of the 15 stream mouths have been sampled, and laboratory sorting and 
identification of sampled organism is proceeding.

3.  Barbers Point Deep Draft Harbor Sampling

The sampling described in the original proposal for Honolulu Harbor, Keehi Lagoon, the Ala Wai 
Yacht Harbor and Kewalo Basin will also be extended to the Barbers Point Deep Draft Harbor 
which was first opened to ocean going vessels in 1990.  This will assure complete coverage of 
Oahus harbor areas and allow comparisons of species introductions in this recently established 
harbor with harbor areas that have been utilized for up to 200 years.

? Summary and Conclusions

All activities proposed for this project in the original proposal submitted to the Packard Foundation 
have been completed according to schedule.  Moreover, a matching contribution, amounting to 
more than twice the original Packard funds, has enabled the establishment of additional important 
tasks such as a ballast water monitoring program, stream mouth sampling and sampling at the 
Barbers Point Deep Draft Harbor.  These matching funds have already been committed to the 
project for its second year.  Continuation of the second year of Packard Foundation funding will 
enable the successful completion of this important source of information for managing Hawaiis 
nearshore marine environment.

Figure 1. Locations of sampling stations in Honolulu Harbor


Appendix A

Annotated Bibliographies for Honolulu Harbor, Keehi Lagoon, 
Ala Wai Yacht Harbor, and Kewalo Basin

Honolulu Harbor Annotated Bibliography

AECOS (1979).  Oahu Coral Reef Inventory. Part A , Atlas, and Part B, Sectional Map 
Descriptions,  Rep. No. 0072. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Honolulu.
Basic descriptive resource for Honolulu Harbor and all Oahu nearshore marine environments, 
containing extensive annotated references.

AECOS (1982).  Marine environmental baseline study in support of the development plan and 
environmental impact statement for Piers 12 to 15 in Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii,  Rep. No. 
AECOS 365. Austin, Tsutsumi & Assoc. Inc., Honolulu.
Literature search and surveys for evaluating the potential impact of dock construction at Piers 12-
15.  Measurements made of water turbidity and observation of dominant benthic and fish 
organisms made in Nov. 1982.

AECOS (1988).  Biological reconnaissance survey and environmental assessment for Pier 1 
modifications, Honolulu Harbor, Hawaii,  Rep. No. AECOS 550, Honolulu.
Brief environmental survey made for  alteration of docks at Pier  1 describes most  apparent 
benthic and fish organisms in area  and  along  basalt boulders at Fort  Armstrong entrance to 
harbor.

AECOS (1992).  Water quality survey for the Marine Education and Training Center at Sand 
Island,  Rep. No. AECOS 656. Wilson Okimoto & Assoc., Honolulu.
Review of water quality and sediment pollutant information for Honolulu Harbor in general and 
METC site on the west end of Sand Island  near the bascule bridge.

Agassiz, A. (1889). The coral reefs of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. 17, 
122-170.
Early description of Honolulu Harbor entrance as a channel kept open by Nuuanu River low and 
muddy character of the bottom and channel.

Allardt, C. E. (1890).  Special report on the dredging of the Honolulu Bar, Honolulu.
Proposal for dredging sandbar at entrance to Honolulu Harbor from a minimum low tide depth of 
20 feet to a uniform 30 feet deep.  Channel  to be 200 feet wide and require removal of 
approximately 60,000 cu. yds.  Mentioned that about 61,000 cu. yds. of mud were removed from 
the harbor in 1884-85 and deposited on the shore near the New Market  vicinity of Alakea St.  
Map shows harbor configuration and depths in 1890.

Aloha Towers Marine Center (1980).  A proposal from the Aloha Maritime Center to the estate of 
James Campbell for sponsorship of a maritime museum at Aloha Tower, Honolulu Harbor, 
Hawaii, 7 p.
Description of planned changes in the Aloha Tower complex to make it the focus of downtown 
development.


Aloha Towers Assoc. (1990).  The plan for the new harbor. The Associates, Honolulu.
Brochure describing planned changes in the Aloha Tower complex from 1990 to 1995

Amicus (1854). Untitled. In  The Polynesian , Honolulu, Jan. 21, 1954
Anonymous letter to the newspaper criticizing the proposed dredging and filling of Honolulu 
waterfront  and selling to highest bidders, and questioning the estimated total cost of the project.

Anon. (1826). The South Eastern Part of the Town of Hanarura at Oahu. BPBM Archives 
CP21998, CP 29158
View of grass houses on Honolulu Harbor shoreline looking toward Diamond Head and Palace of 
Kamehameha

Anon. (1843). Map of Honolulu City, Honolulu, In Existing Urban Resources and Facilities-
Honolulu (1939).
Map showing Honolulu and its waterfront with principal buildings in 1843.

Anon. (1854). Proposed improvement of government property. In  The Polynesian, Honolulu, Jan. 
14, 1854.
Description of proposed project to dredge and fill water front area in front of Honolulu Fort to 
accommodate berths for shipping and sell property created by filling to highest bidders.

Anon. (1854). The water lots. In The Polynesian , Honolulu, Jan. 28, 1854
Rebuttal to criticism by Amicus of proposed dredging and filling of Honolulu shoreline to create 
additional wharfage and reclaimed land to be sold to highest bidder, the primary purpose of the 
project to provide needed docking area for the business of the port.

Anon. (1856). Untitled. In  The Polynesian, Honolulu, Oct. 18, 1856.
Description of progress of dredging of Honolulu Harbor waterfront between Market and Custom 
House wharves, where depth had been increased an average of five feet.

Anon. (1856). Untitled. In  The Polynesian, Honolulu, Nov. 29, 1856.
Description of progress of dredging of Honolulu Harbor waterfront at Robinson's wharf, where 
depth had been increased to 23 feet.

Anon. (1857). Untitled. In  The Polynesian, Honolulu, Jan. 17, 1857.
Description of driving of piles along Robinson's Wharf, and beginning of transfer of coral blocks 
from the Honolulu Fort to be used in constructing the harbor retaining walls, while dredged harbor 
mud supplying the landfill  material.  What a revolution among the animacules!

Anon. (1862). Plan of Honolulu, BPBM Archives H36057.
Map showing Honolulu waterfront with principal buildings and shoreline of landfilled esplanade.

Anon. (1878). Discovery of Honolulu Harbor. In  Hawaiian Almanac Annual for 1878 , Vol. 4, p. 
24. Thrum and Oat.
Brief description of discovery of Honolulu Harbor  by Capt. Brown commanding English ship SS 
Butterworth and its tender Jackall in 1794, who called the harbor Fairhaven.  Harbor first entered 
by the Jackall and the Prince Le Boo on Nov. 21, 1794.

Anon. (1883). The marine railway finished and in good working order. In Pacific Commercial 
Advertiser, Honolulu, Jan. 2 1883, p. 2.
Description of first use of newly completed marine railway at Pier 2, constructed at cost of 
$100,000 to Hawaiian government and leased to Samuel Wilder for $5000/year.

Anon. (1884). Shipping notes. In  Pacific Commercial Advertiser, Honolulu, Jan 17, 1884, p. 2.
Note of dredging activity at Likelike wharf.

Anon. (1891). Map of Honolulu City, Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian Annual, Honolulu.
Map showing Honolulu waterfront with principal buildings.

Anon. (1891). Harbor dredging. In  Pacific Commercial Advertiser, Honolulu, Nov. 12, 1891, p. 3.
Notice of dredging to begin in Jan. 1892 in Honolulu Harbor, first on channel bar, then interior.  All 
areas to be dredged to 30 feet depth.

Anon. (1892). Honolulu Harbor improvements, Vol. 19, p. 77-81. Press Publishing, Hawaiian 
Almanac Annual for 1893.
Brief description of discovery of Honolulu Harbor  by Capt. Brown of the English ship SS 
Butterworth and its tender Jackall in 1794, who called the harbor Fairhaven. First survey of harbor 
by Capt. Broughton in 1796, later surveys by Kotzebue in 1816 and Malden in 1825.  Article 
describes dredging of harbor entrance channel for a distance of 1100 feet long by 200 feet wide, 
work beginning in June 1892.  67,000 cu yds of dredge material removed and place on shoreline 
east of harbor entrance

Anon. (1892). The dredger narrowly escapes destruction last evening. In  Pacific Commercial 
Advertiser, Honolulu, May 4, 1892, p. 3.
Description of near loss of dredger while anchored on Waikiki side of Honolulu Harbor entrance 
for dredging entrance sand bar.  Dredger platform barge slipped anchors and came to rest on 
Ewa side of channel on reef.

Anon. (1892). Work on the bar. In  Pacific Commercial Advertiser Honolulu, Sep. 20, 1892, p. 3.
Note of completion of dredging the sand bar at entrance of Honolulu Harbor to 30 feet depth.


Anon. (1892). Dredging the Honolulu Harbor bar. In  Scientific American , No. 875, p. 244-225, 
New York.
Full description of Honolulu Harbor project for dredging entrance and harbor to 30 feet, removing 
an estimated 60,000 cu. yds from entrance and 640,000 from harbor basin.  Work on entrance 
bar commenced on Apr. 7, 1892 and was essentially complete by end of August,, with minor 
additional dredging to be completed in September to bring entrance depth to an unobstructed 30 
feet.


Anon. (1892). The harbor bar. The Scientific American writes an article about it. In  Pacific 
Commercial Advertiser, Honolulu,  Oct. 27, 1892, p. 4.
Reprint of Oct. 8, 1892 Scientific American article about dredging of Honolulu Harbor entrance 
channel and basin.

Anon. (1892). The hydraulic dredger. In  Pacific Commercial Advertiser, Honolulu, Oct. 30, 1892.
Description and diagram of the dredger built by Risdon Iron Works of San Francisco for dredging 
the Honolulu Harbor entrance bar and basin.

Anon. (1894).  Honolulu. In J. D. Spreckels & Bros, North Pacific Coast Ports, p 68-76.
Instructions and information for shipmasters entering Honolulu Harbor.	

Anon. (1895). Our golden gate. In  Paradise of the Pacific , Vol. 8, p. 19.
Brief description of Honolulu Harbor, and mention that 315 foreign vessels utilized harbor in 1893.

Anon. (1897). Public works and improvements. , Vol. 23, p. 126. Press Publishing, Hawaiian 
Almanac Annual for 1897.
Description of changing course of Nuuanu stream course at harbor entrance and deepening of 
harbor at eastern end of the esplanade.

Anon. (1897). On the water front. In  Paradise of the Pacific , Vol. 10, p. 115.
Photo of Honolulu Harbor dock facing mountains.

Anon. (1898). Public works and improvements. , Vol. 24, p. 158. Press Publishing, Hawaiian 
Almanac Annual for 1898.
Progress report on changing course of Nuuanu stream course at harbor entrance and deepening 
of harbor at eastern end of the esplanade.

Anon. (1898). Honolulu Harbor-Crossroads of the Pacific. In  Paradise of the Pacific , Vol. 11, p. 
17-18.
Description of harbor channel dimensions, dredging date and material removed and shoreline 
before building of the Esplanade.  First ocean steamer to utilize new harbor channel after 
dredging was the Oceanic in May, 1893

Anon. (1899). Wharf and wave. In  Pacific Commercial Advertiser , p. 8, Honolulu.
Note of deployment of hydraulic dredger at foot of Richards St. for excavation of new slips, 
dredged spoils to be deposited on land Waikiki of the public market.


Anon. (1899). The new harbor.  Official description of the boundaries. In  Pacific Commercial 
Advertiser , p. 7, Honolulu.
Detailed verbal description of Honolulu Harbor boundaries as shown on recently issued map from 
the War Department.

Anon. (1900). Public  improvements. , Vol. 26, p. 161-62. Press Publishing, Hawaiian Almanac 
Annual for 1900.
Progress report on deepening of harbor and wharf extension and project proposed to link harbor 
with Kalihi.

Anon. (1900). Extension of the harbor. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 13, p. 3.
Proposal that Honolulu Harbor expansion should be done by extending of the Nuuanu stream 
rather than by dredging shallow areas of the harbor basin

Anon. (1902). Honolulu Harbor map. , Vol. 15, p. 12. Paradise of the Pacific, Honolulu.
Map of Honolulu Harbor at turn of the century

Anon. (1903). Honolulu Harbor. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 16, p. 10-11.
Descriptions of locations of ship docking areas for various companies and plans to increase 
wharfage in six months.

Anon. (1904). Plans for a new Alakea dock. In  Hawaiian Star, July 6, 1904, p. 7, Honolulu.
Description of new docks and slip to be built at base of Alakea St. for Pacific Mail and other 
steamers.  Construction to include widening of adjacent street, building or modification of two 
wharves and dredging basin to 34 feet.

Anon. (1905). First steps in improvement of harbor started. In  Hawaiian Star, May 16, 1905, p. 1, 
Honolulu.
Description of plans for widening Honolulu Harbor entrance channel 150 feet and moving of 
entrance lighthouse 400 feet seaward.

Anon. (1905). Work commences on Alakea Dock. In  Hawaiian Star, July 8, 1905, p. 1, Honolulu.
Description of equipment and dredging operations for construction of Alakea dock and slips for 
docking large ocean liners.

Anon. (1905). Dredger Pacific hard at work. In  Hawaiian Star, Nov. 14, 1905, p. 5, Honolulu.
Description of progress of dredging of Alakea St. slip and deposition of dredge spoils inside the 
naval sea wall makai of the Immigration Station, which had been raised two feet by this 
deposition.


Anon. (1906). Honolulu marine railway. In  Pacific Commercial Advertise, July 2, 1906, p. 69, 
Honolulu.
Brief history of the development of the Honolulu marine railway built in 1882 and its early lessees 
and operators.

Anon. (1906). Harbor dredging finished. In  Hawaiian Star, Aug. 7, 1906, p. 8, Honolulu.
Note of completion of harbor dredging and filling in of some of Quarantine Island.

Anon. (1907). Shipping sugar. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 20, p. 16-17.
Picture of docking area for Oahu Land and Railway.

Anon. (1907). Honolulu's harbor light. In  Paradise of the Pacific , Vol. 20, p. 12-13.
Picture and description of Honolulu Harbor's old light house, which stood at the Ewa side of the 
entrance channel.

Anon. (1907). Alakea wharf.  Ready for delivery next week with a prospect of pilikia. In  Hawaiian 
Star,Nov. 12, 1907, p. 8, Honolulu.
Notice of completion of construction of Alakea St. wharf, to be used for docking large ocean 
liners.

Anon. (1907). Alakea wharf accepted today. In  Hawaiian Star, Dec. 7, 1907, p. 1, Honolulu.
Completion and transfer of Alakea St. wharf to Hawaiian Territory, built at cost of $91,000 and 
eight months to construct.

Anon. (1911). No title, Hawaiian Almanac Annual, Vol. 35., Press Publishing, Honolulu.
Minimum depth at Honolulu Harbor channel entrance given as 33 feet and general depth in 
harbor as 35 feet.

Anon. (1914). Honolulu Harbor extension plans. Hawaiian Almanac Annual, Vol. 39, p. 110-120. 
Press Publishing, Honolulu.
Description of proposed dredging of the of a 600 foot long 400 foot wide channel from Kalihi basin 
to Palama Basin to increase harbor area above the existing 97 acres.

Anon. (1920).  Harbor Extension. Hawaiian Almanac Annual, Vol. 44, p. 149. Press Publishing.
Description of proposed harbor plan that would add ten additional large piers on the west side of 
the harbor which would provide wharfage for a total of 52 vessels.  However project was turned 
down.

Anon. (1922). Health Board wants fishing sampans moved. In  Hawaiian Star Bulletin, Dec. 21, 
1922, p. 2, Honolulu.
Request by Board of Health to move fishing boats to not yet completed Kewalo Basin due to 
concern that polluted water from Nuuanu Stream (characterized as  simply an open sewer ) 
would contaminate fish catches when used for washing down boat decks and compartments.

Anon. (1922). Harbor board would develop Kewalo Basin. In  Hawaiian Star Bulletin, Dec. 12, 
1922, p. 1, Honolulu.
Description of planned acquisition of land and budgeting of $300,000 of public funds to dredge 
and construct Kawalo basin for docking of fishing sampans and lumber cargoes, which then 
required wharfages in Honolulu Harbor.

Anon. (1923). Untitled Photo. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 36, p. 92.
Aerial view of Honolulu Harbor before Kalihi entrance channel was dredged

Anon. (1924). Harbor Extension. , Hawaiian Almanac Annual, Vol. 48, p. 161. Press Publishing, 
Honolulu.
Bids received at the end of 1922 for 800 foot wide, 35 foot deep Kalihi channel extension.  When 
completed this project would give an extended wharfage of over 1000 feet.

Anon. (1924). Untitled Photo. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 37, p. 120.
View toward Sand Island with HECO's Honolulu Generating Station in foreground and a four 
masted ship at Pier 1 area.

Anon. (1925). Untitled Photos. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 38, p. 5.
Aerial view of harbor entrance channel before it was increased by dredge spoils from Kalihi 
channel, and a view of the harbor from a ship leaving the main channel.

Anon. (1927). Untitled Photos. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 40, p. 8-9.
Photo of Honolulu Harbor looking toward railway docks, and  view along docks showing sailing 
ships as they appeared in 1900.

Anon. (1927). Untitled Photo. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 40, p. 9.
Aerial view toward Sand Island showing entire harbor before dredging of Kalihi Channel and 
enlargement of Sand Island.

Anon. (1927). Untitled Photos. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 40, p. 74.
Aerial view of Honolulu Harbor looking toward mountain, and  similar view from the water.

Anon. (1928).  Kalihi Basin entered. , Vol. 52, p. 129. Press Publishing, Hawaiian Almanac 
Annual.
First large craft entered new Kalihi Basin on June 27, 1927

Anon. (1929). King Kalakaua's famous boathouse in Honolulu Harbor. In  Paradise of the Pacific, 
Vol. 42, p. 26.
Photo of boathouse taken in Nov. 1885 with view toward mountains.

Anon. (1933). Untitled Photo. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 46, p. 49.
Aerial view of west section of the harbor showing tip of Sand Island and new Kalihi Channel.

Anon. (1936). The old Honolulu Fort. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 48, p. 43-49.
Description of the building of the Honolulu Fort in 1816, its history until its destruction in 1857 and 
use of its material for filling in the waterfront and making seawalls.

Anon. (1938). Plan of Honolulu Harbor, 1818. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 50, p. 8.
Copy of earliest existing chart of Honolulu Harbor, made by Tabulevitch of the Russian sloop 
Kamschtaka  in 1818, showing harbor entrance and various identified buildings and docks.

Anon. (1938). The  Broughton  survey of Honolulu Harbor, 1796. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 
50, p. 14.
Short description of the first survey of Honolulu Harbor by Capt. Broughton of the HMS 
Providence in Feb. 1796, and its subsequent loss, probably in a  shipwreck off Formosa in 1797.

Anon. (1950).  The ports of Hawaii. Propeller Club of the U. S., Honolulu.
Brief description of events for Honolulu Harbor from its discovery in the 1890s to 1950

Anon. (1967).  The ports of Oahu. Honolulu Propeller Club, Honolulu.
Condensed history and description of Honolulu Harbor as of 1967.

Anon. (1978).  A study to determine the feasibility of providing  shore protection to portions of 
Sand Island, Oahu, Hawaii, . U. S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu.
Description and anticipated environmental impacts of repairing and maintaining seawall to 
prevent further erosion along 2615 ft length of shoreline along Sand Island Park on east side of 
Sand Island.

Anon. (1985).  Honolulu Harbor educational resource packet. Univ. Hawaii Sea Grant Extension 
Serv., Honolulu.
Concise history of Honolulu Harbor (duplication of 1967 Ports of Honolulu article for the Propeller 
Club)

Baker, R. J. (1950).  Sketches and Maps of Old Honolulu, R. J. Baker, Honolulu.
Collection of copies of artists sketches and maps of Honolulu, including harbor area from pre-20th 
century.

Beechert, E. D. (1991).  Honolulu, Crossroads of the Pacific.  1st ed., Univ. South Carolina Press, 
Columbia, S. C.
Detailed history of events and uses of Honolulu Harbor and its central importance in the economy 
of Hawaii.

Board of Engineers, f. R. a. H. (1926). The port of Honolulu, Hawaii. In  The ports of the territory 
of Hawaii , p. 5-79. U. S. War Department, Washington, D. C.
Detailed description, regulations and practical information for mariners concerning Honolulu 
Harbor in 1926.

Brock, R. E. (1991, 1992) An analysis of benthic communities in the zone of mixing for the 
Honolulu and Kahului Generating Stations. Environmental Department, Hawaiian Electric Co. 
Honolulu.
Results of 1991 and 1992 monitoring surveys in the discharge basin of the Honolulu Power 
Station and along the east shore of Sand Island.

Brock, R. E. (1993, 1994, 1995, 1997) An analysis of benthic communities in the zone of mixing 
for the Honolulu and Kahului Generating Stations. Environmental Department, Hawaiian Electric 
Co. Honolulu.
Results of 1993, 1994, 1995 and 1997 monitoring surveys in the discharge basin of the Honolulu 
Power Station and along the east shore of Sand Island.

Burgess, G. H. (1857). Port of Honolulu. View of Honolulu waterfront looking mauka at approx. 
Nuuanu St. BPBM Archives CP29209, CP76782.

Cartwright, B. (1923).  The first discovery of Honolulu Harbor. Hawaii Historical Society 31st 
Report, Honolulu.
Detailed account of the discovery of Honolulu Harbor in December 1786 by Mr. Hayward of the 
the King George under command of Captain Nathaniel Portlock. An alternative opinion by 
Professor Alaxander, the historian, of its first entry by a foreign vessel in February, 1794 by 
Captain Brown in the schooner Jackal and Captain Gordon in the sloop Prince Lee Boo.  They 
called the harbor Fair Haven, which may be a rough translation of the Hawaiian name 
Honoonoono.

Cartwright, B. (1925). Honolulu in 1809-10. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 38, p. 59-66.
Description of early Honolulu, known as Kou, and its earliest European inhabitants who came 
around or before 1795.  Drawing of shoreline showing beach and Nuuanu Stream mouth with 
grass huts and palm trees in background.  Mentions first survey of Harbor in 1796 by Captain 
Broughton of British Navy.

Cartwright, B. (1937). Punia-iki - A legend of Honolulu. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 49, p. 25-
27.
Hawaiian Legends associated with district of Kou, print showing Honolulu Harbor near fishpond 
and Nuuanu Stream from anchorage in 1828 and map of harbor made by Duperrey in 1819.

Cartwright, B. (1938). Old Honolulu. In  Paradise of the Pacific, Vol. 50, p. 33-34.
Description of earliest European visitors to Honolulu (Fairhaven) and Honolulu Harbor and the 
earliest charts made.

Choris, L. (1822). Vue du port hanarourou. BPBM Archives CP101756.
View of Honololu Harbor showing Old Fort and grass housed to right

Choris, L. (1822). Port d'hanorourou. BPBM Archives CP101765.
View of grass houses on Honolulu Harbor shoreline looking toward harbor entrance

Cox, D., and Gordon, G., Jr. (1970).  Estuarine pollution in the State of Hawaii.  Vol. 1. Statewide 
survey. Tech. Report  No. 31. Water Resources Research Center, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu.
General description of Honolulu Harbor water resources, stream flow and pollution sources in 
early 1970's.  Median coliform counts at that time were only 6 MPN/100 for six years of sampling 
at harbor entrance, but soared to 125,000 MPN/100 in the Sand Island Channel, and to 20 million 
MPN/100 in the Kapalama Canal.  Fish kills affecting up to 100,000 fish had occurred in the 
Kapalama Canal in May, 1963, July, 1965, and September, 1966.

Department of Account. & Gen. Serv. (1972).  Draft environmental impact statement for Marine 
Expeditionary Center, Snug Harbor, Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii,, Honolulu.
Description of the development proposed for the Marine Expeditionary Center`	 to be located at 
Piers 43-46 in Honolulu Harbor and very brief coverage of the anticipated environmental effects 
of the proposed development

Emmert, P. (1862). Honolulu Harbor. In Hopkins, H., Hawaii: The Past, Present and Future of its 
Island Kingdom.
View of Honolulu waterfront looking mauka at approx. Fort St. and showing west end of 
esplanade.

Environmental Consultants Inc., and Hawaiian Electric Company Inc. (1974).  The marine 
biological impact of the Honolulu Power Plant. A summary of the 1974 investigations.  Hawaiian 
Electric Environmental Department, Honolulu.
Description of third and final year of monitoring of marine environmental effects of discharge from 
Honolulu Power Plant.   Provides data for water temperatures, biomass of zooplankton, 
phytoplankton species composition, and species composition and growth of resident fish species.

Fitzpatrick, G. L. (1947).  The Early Mapping of Hawai'i. Volume I. Palpal'aina,  Editions Limited, 
Honolulu.
Compilation of all of early maps of Honolulu Harbor and annotations, beginning with original 1816 
chart of the harbor by Otto von Kotzebue.  Also, description of first use of the harbor and its 
probable discovery by William Brown and Captain Gordon of the  ships Jackal and Prince Lee 
Boo in  November, 1793, at its probable first survey by William Broughton  in 1796.  However, 
survey  results have never been located.

Harbors Division, H. D. (1986). 2010 Master plan for Honolulu Harbor. Hawaii State Dep. 
Transportation and Maritime Affairs Committee, Hawaii Chamber of Commerce, Honolulu.
Descriptions of changes in Honolulu Harbor from 1995 plan that had been completed to date, and 
recommendation for changes to be enacted in the future.

Honolulu, C. o. C. (1914).  Extension of Honolulu Harbor to Kapalama Basin. U. S. Board of 
Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, Honolulu.
Statement in support of developing Honolulu Harbor to meet increases in shipping traffic 
expected from opening of Panama Canal.

Judd, W. F. (1975).  Palaces and Forts of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Pacific Books, Palo Alto.
Detailed description of the construction, structure, use and removal of the Honolulu Fort, which 
existed from 1816 to 1857.

Lacayo Planning Inc. (1993).  Pier 38 Master Plan, . Hawaii State Dep. Bus., Econ. Dev & 
Tourism, Honolulu.
Master plan of redevelopment of Pier 38 area for utilization as University marine research 
complex and docking facilities.

Larrison, G. K. (1941). Background and data on activities pertaining to the development of 
Honolulu Harbor. Maritime Affairs Committee of Honolulu Chamber of Commerce, Honolulu.
Brief history of dredging activities from 1898 to 1941, ownership of piers in 1914 and subsequent 
construction, and dredging activities authorized by the Board of Engineers for 1941 and following.

Llewellyn, A. D. (1947). Honolulu Harbor. In  The Military Engineer, Vol. 39, p. 51-55.
Detailed account of dredging and filling operations in Honolulu Harbor from first widening of 
entrance channel in 1889 to seaplane runways in Keehi Lagoon during WW II

McCain, J. C., and Peck, J. M. J. (1972).  The marine biological impact of the Honolulu Power 
Plant. A summary of the 1972 investigations. Hawaiian Electric Environmental Department, 
Honolulu.
Description of first years monitoring of marine environmental effects of discharge from Honolulu 
Power Plant.  Conclusions not specific but provides data for water temperatures, biomass of 
zooplankton, benthic fouling and fish species found and tissue residues of heavy metals.

McCain, J. C., and., Coles S L. (1973). The marine biological impact of the Honolulu Power Plant. 
Hawaiian Electric Environmental Department, Honolulu. Description of second years monitoring 
of marine environmental effects of discharge from Honolulu Power Plant.  Provides substantial 
data for  water temperatures, biomass of zooplankton, phytoplankton species composition, coral 
abundance and size distributions in intake and discharge basins, fish species and growth rates 
and tissue residues of heavy metals.

McCain, J. C., Coles S L. and Peck, J. M. (1975). The marine biological impact of the Honolulu 
Power Plant.  Rep. No. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-76-01. Univ. Hawaii Sea Grant, Honolulu.
Duplication of 1973 HECO report describing second years monitoring of marine environmental 
effects of discharge from Honolulu Power Plant.

Mellen, G. W. (1938). Ships come in. The Sales Builder 11:2-15.
Rambling account of Hawaii's maritime history, with excerpts on first arrivals in Honolulu Harbor 
of various type of craft, marine related businesses and changes in Harbor itself.

Metcalf, T. (1847). Land Grants and Awards, Honolulu.
Map showing Honolulu and its waterfront with ownership of buildings and property.

Oceanit Laboratories Inc. (1990).  Marine environmental assessment for the waterfront at Aloha 
Tower. Hawaii State Aloha Tower Development Corp., Honolulu.
Marine environmental survey results and assessment of impact for redevelopment of Aloha tower 
waterfront complex  (Piers 5-14).  Additional data given for Kapalama and Kalihi Channels.  
Stated  Water quality results indicated that the harbor is in relatively good condition and falls with 
State DOH water quality standards. Results from marine and benthic habitat investigations show 
that marine life is neither abundant nor diverse in most areas of Honolulu Harbor.  There are no 
rare, endangered or threatened species identified within or near the project area... A major area 
of abundant sea life is the sea wall extending from the base of Pier 8 (electric plant inlet) to Pier 7 
(electric plant outlet) and around the rock revetment of Piers 5 and 6.

Perkins, R. W. (1917). Six mile view of Honolulu from busy harbor to Diamond Head, Vol. 30, p. 
16-17. Paradise of the Pacific, Honolulu.
Picture  of Honolulu Harbor's waterfront

Pitzer, P. (1980). New life for Aloha Tower. In  Honolulu, p. 43-48.
Description of Hawaii Maritime Museum originally located in the Aloha Tower but later moved to 
Pier 7.

Pollack, J. B. (1928). Fringing and fossil coral reefs of Oahu. B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 55, 1-56.
Description of process of Honolulu Harbor formation and of dredged and filled areas for Sand 
Island and Kalihi Basin that existed to date.

Rockwood, P. (1957). Honolulu in 1810.  Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Detailed map and notes indicating sites of residences and structures in Honolulu and along its 
waterfront in 1810.

Rush, B. F. (1957). History of construction and development of Honolulu Harbor. Board of Harbor 
commissioners, Honolulu.
Detailed history of Honolulu Harbor and Kewalo Basin, with extensive information on dates of 
dock and pier development and filling operations.

Sabin, W. F. (1902). Rotten Row. Paradise of the Pacific 15, 58-59.
Description of final resting place (location unspecified) in Honolulu Harbor for derelict ships and 
some of their descriptions

Sakai, K. T. (1968). Investigation of Harbor Disturbances in Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii. M. 
S., Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Analysis of factors responsible for disturbances of moored ships at Piers 1, 2, (most severe) and 
Piers 8, 9 and 10.  Possible causes were southern swells with periods of 14 to 22 sec. and Kona 
storms generating long period waves

Scott, E. B. (1968). A wife poisoner swung from the gallows. . SierraTahoe Publishing.  A Saga of 
the Sandwich Islands.
Drawing showing walls of Honolulu Fort looking seaward, and narrative describing its building in 
1816 and history, including its use as site for Hawaii's first hanging, and its demolition in 1857.

Shell Oil Co. (1972).  Final environmental statement administrative action for Project A-61002 
Pipeline-Honolulu Harbor to International Airport Storage Terminal-Sand island Access Road. 
Hawaii State Department of Transportation, Honolulu.
Evaluation of the environmental impact of Shell Oil storage site at Sand Island Access Road and 
approximately 2.8 miles of pipeline easements between Honolulu Harbor and Honolulu 
International Airport.

Simpson, A. (1843). Map of the city of Honolulu. The Saga of the Sandwich Islands, Honolulu.
Map published on August 25, 1843 showing listing of business houses, residences and Honolulu 
Fort.

Stangenwald, H. (1854). Tower, cupola and bell. The Saga of the Sandwich Islands, Honolulu.
Earliest known photo of Honolulu taken in 1854 from the tower of Kawaihao Church and looking 
Ewa, showing Oahu Charity School, Sumners Island and the western tip of Quarantine Island in 
Honolulu Harbor.

Stewart, C. H. (1936). Honolulu Harbor. Military Engineer 28, 22-28.
Detailed history of Honolulu Harbor and its development with information of dredging dates and 
quantities.

Stroup, E. (1959). The ports of Oahu. Honolulu Propeller Club, Honolulu.
Brief history and detailed description of Honolulu Harbor, especially Piers 39-40, at time of 
statehood.

Thomas, W. J. (1979). Aspects of the Micro-community Associated with Telesteo riisei, an 
Introduced Alcyonarian Species. M. S., Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.
A three year study of the introduced shallow-water octocoral Telesteo riisei and its associated 
micro-community in Honolulu Harbor revealed a fairly stable community, in terms of biomass, for 
the first two and a half years, with seasonal fluctuations of species composition and numbers of 
species and individuals in this community.

Towill, R. M. (1982).  Revised environmental impact statement for commercial fishing berthing 
area pier 16, Honolulu Harbor, Oahu. Hawaii Department of Transportation, Honolulu.
EIS prepared for extension of Piers 16 and 17 for additional fishing boat docking.

U. S. Army, Corps of Eng. (1958).  General design for modification of Honolulu Harbor. U. S. 
Army Engineer District, Honolulu, Honolulu.
Design memorandum describing dredging to be done to complete the Kalihi Channel to 
Kapalama Basin originally began pre-WW II but  discontinued toward the end of the war.  
Renewed project provided for an entrance channel 40 ft deep 500 ft wide and 400 ft long

U. S. Army, Corps of Eng. (1963).  Review report on survey of Honolulu Harbor and Barbers 
Point Harbor for navigation, Oahu, Hawaii. U. S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu, Honolulu.
Statement authorizing the modification of Honolulu Harbor to deepen entrance channel and 
interior areas by 5 feet and to widen interior connecting channel by 60 feet, and to construct 
supplementary deep draft harbor at Barbers Point.

U. S. Army, Corps of Eng. (1976).  Final environmental impact statement, Honolulu Harbor. U. S. 
Army Engineer District, Honolulu, Honolulu.
Environmental impact statement describing the plan and estimated impacts of dredging main 
entrance channel of Honolulu Harbor to 45 ft, dredging basins and Kapalama Channel to 40 ft, , 
and widening Kapalama channel by 60 ft for a distance of 3100 ft.  Dredged material of about 1.3 
million cu. yds. to be disposed of at deep ocean disposal site.

U. S. Army, Corps of Eng. (1976).  Honolulu Harbor Phase I general design memorandum plan 
formulation. U. S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu, Honolulu.
Presents the results of the Phase I post-authorization studies for modification of Honolulu Harbor, 
including dredging main entrance channel of Honolulu Harbor to 45 ft,, dredging basins and 
Kapalama Channel to 40 ft, , and widening Kapalama channel by 60 ft for a distance of 3100 ft.  
Dredged material of about 1.3 million cu. yds. to be disposed of at deep ocean disposal site.

U. S. Army, Corps of Eng. (1977).  Honolulu Harbor  Design memorandum No. 1.  Phase II 
project design. U. S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu, Honolulu.
Provides details of the plan of improvement presented in the plan formulation study and 
summarized in  the Phase I post-authorization studies for modification of Honolulu Harbor, 
including dredging main entrance channel of Honolulu Harbor to 45 ft,, dredging basins and 
Kapalama Channel to 40 ft, , and widening Kapalama channel by 60 ft for a distance of 3100 ft.  
Dredged material of about 1.3 million cu. yds. to be disposed of at deep ocean disposal site.


Ultramar, C. W. L. (1968).  Water quality study Honolulu Harbor, Keehi Lagoon and nearshore 
waters from Kewalo Basin to Ahua Point, . Hawaii State Department of Health, Honolulu.
Results of water quality sampling in vicinity of Honolulu Harbor prior to removal of Sand Island 
sewage outfall offshore.

United States Foreign Trade Board (1974).  Final environmental impact statement. U. S. Dep. 
Commerce, Washington, D. C.
Description of proposed development and environmental impacts of Hawaii Independent Refinery 
transshipment terminal in Honolulu Harbor on Sand Island Access Road.

Waldman, A. (1982). Honolulu, port of perpetual change. In  Honolulu , p. 62-65.
Brief historical excerpts for Honolulu Harbor from pre-European contact to 1982.

Walsh, W. (1898). Honolulu Harbor. In  Paradise of the Pacific , Vol. 11, p. 17-18.
Description of harbor with details on area (73 acres) and channel dimensions (1200 ft long, 200 ft 
wide, 30 ft deep) at that time.  First ship to enter after the dredging of the deep channel was the 
Oceanic, which entered on May 9, 1893.  Description of the Esplanade, built by filling sand 
behind the walls of the former fort, which was torn down in the 1850s and the walls used to build 
a retaining wall at the edge of the harbor .  Further work to expand wharfage mentioned.

Waterfront, Design Commission (1976).  A waterfront design concept for Honolulu Harbor. 
Downtown Improvement Association, Honolulu.
Description of  planned changes in the Aloha Tower complex to make it the focus of downtown 
development.

Watson, L. J. (1933).  A comprehensive survey of the harbor system of Honolulu. Special 
Committee on Honolulu Harbor Development , Honolulu Chamber of Commerce, Honolulu.
List and details of eight projects proposed to develop Honolulu Harbor as of 1933, including 
increasing main channel width and depth, dredging direct channel from Kapalama Basin to the 
sea, enlarging Kapalama Basin, filling areas of Kapalama, Sand Island and Fort Armstrong and 
improving Kewalo Basin entrance.

Webster, W. (1854). Untitled. In The Polynesian, Mar. 20, 1854, Honolulu.
Letter of rebuttal by the designing engineer of the project to dredge and fill the Honolulu 
waterfront to the anonymous critic Amicus, regarding estimated costs of construction and 
completion of the project.

Webster, W. (1854). The water lots again. In The Polynesian, Feb. 4, 1854, Honolulu.
Description by the designing engineer of the project to dredge and fill the Honolulu waterfront 
detailing dimensions of property to be created by filling and an itemized estimate of the costs of 
the project, based on the availability of 1500 cu. yds. of coral blocks from the to be dismantled 
Honolulu Fort.


Wendt, D. (1989).  Teachers resource book for Honolulu Harbor and shoreline cruises, Rep. No. 
UNIH-SEAGRANT-MR-89-03. Univ. Hawaii SeaGrant, Honolulu.
Map copies and descriptions of Honolulu's waterfront development from 1840 to 1957.

Wilson Okimoto & Assoc. (1969).  Honolulu Harbor 1968.  A planning and engineering guide for 
the development of the Honolulu waterfront. Harbors Division, State of Hawaii Dep. 
Transportation, Honolulu.
Detailed history of pier development and ownership, maps indicating topography, locations and 
ownership of piers in 1968.

Wilson Okimoto & Assoc. (1991).  EIS and preparation notice for the Marine Education and 
Training Center and public boat launch facility, Sand Island, Oahu. Honolulu Waterfront Project, 
State of Hawaii Dep. Bus. Econ. Dev. and Tourism, Honolulu.
Description and anticipated environmental impacts of development of Marine Education and 
Training Center and public boat launch facility at west end of Sand Island.


Keehi Lagoon - Annotated Bibliography

AECOS (1995). Final report: water quality for the Sand Island Marine Education and Training 
Center and Public Launch Facility, Ke'ehi Lagoon, Rep. No. AECOS 656. Hawaii State Dep. Bus. 
Econ. Devel. and Tourism Honolulu Waterfront Project, Honolulu.
Water quality parameters monitored at six stations in vicinity of proposed METC, at NW end of 
Sand Island, in waters of Ke'ehi lagoon and seaplane runway "D".  Area was well mixed vertically 
and horizontally, and no impacts from METC construction activities were apparent.

Bathen, K. H. (1970). The circulation in Keehi Lagoon, Oahu, Hawaii, during July and August, 
1968, Rep. No. 17.  Haw. Inst. Mar. Biol., Honolulu.
The surface circulation was found to be strongly dependent upon the prevailing winds. A 
westward flow of surface water occurred in most areas of the lagoon except during periods of 
weak winds.  The subsurface flow was strongly dependent on bathymetry.  This flow was either to 
or from the lagoon whether a flooding or ebbing tide was in process.  However, on the eastern 
side of the lagoon, the incoming transport was greater than the outgoing transport, particularly in 
a dredged ship channel that crosses the lagoon entrance reef.  In contrast, the outgoing transport  
was greater than the incoming transport on the western side of the lagoon.  These conditions 
result in a limited amount of daily flushing of the lagoon from the west to the east.

Chapman, G. A. (1979). Honolulu International Airport Reef Runway post construction 
environmental impact report.  Vol. 1. Executive Summary. Hawaii State Dep. Transportation, 
Honolulu.
Summary of environmental impact studies on water circulation, water quality, benthos and fish, 
noise and birds post construction of reef runway.  Overall, all were substantially improved or 
unaffected by the runway construction.  Flushing of Keehi Lagoon was increased 25-35% by the 
channels dredged for the runway, and water quality improved by the increased flushing that 
resulted, as well as by removal offshore of the Sand Island sewage outfall.  Dredged areas 
showed quick recovery of infaunal organisms and fish, and rapid habitation of new circulation 
channels and borrow pits formed by dredging.  Although there was an irretrievable loss of over 
500 ha of shallow reef by dredging and filling for the runway, the steep walls of the channels and 
barrow pits and the increased circulation permitted the establishment of complex marine 
communities in areas where stagnant conditions and low relief supported minimal populations of 
marine organisms.

Environmental Consultants Inc. (1977). Post construction water quality, benthic habitat and 
epifaunal survey for the reef runway, Honolulu International Airport. Ralph M. Parsons C., 
Honolulu.
Interim  report for post construction surveys of impacts of reef runway construction on marine 
biota of Keehi Lagoon.  Stations located in lagoon proper, outside of runway and in Hickam 
Harbor basin.

Environmental Consultants Inc. (1978). Marine environmental survey for the Ke'ehi Lagoon 
unauthorized landfill. U. S. Army Engineer Division , Pacific Ocean, Honolulu.
Measurements of soluble petrochemical concentrations (expressed as naphthalene and "asphalt" 
aromatic hydrocarbons and infaunal densities in sediments of northeast Keehi Lagoon in vicinity 
of Kalihi and Moanalua Stream mouths to beginning of seaplane runway.  Result showed 
substantial oil contamination of sediments tha may have been leaching form the landfill but also 
suggested other sources such as drainage ditches.  Sediments in northeast basin were almost 
entirely terrigenous, with a substantial portion of asphalt fragments worn form the shoreline.  
Predominant benthic habitat  was mud bottom dominated by small oligochaetes and polychaetes 
by number, an alpheids and large polychaetes by biomass.  Few attached invertebrates found 
along the shoreline of the landfill dominated by a single sponge species.

Environmental Consultants Inc. (1979). Post construction water quality, benthic habitat and 
epifaunal survey for the reef runway, Honolulu International Airport.  Final Report.  Water Quality. 
Ralph M. Parsons C., Honolulu.
Final report for post construction surveys of impacts of reef runway construction on water quality 
of Keehi Lagoon.  Stations located in lagoon proper, outside of runway and in Hickam Harbor 
basin.  Water quality in most areas surrounding the Reef Runway found to improve over 
conditions prior to construction, primarily due to increased flushing efficiencies resulting from 
reconfiguration of Keehi Lagoon and Hickam Harbor.  Increased water transport thorough 
Honolulu Harbor had improved conditions in contiguous areas.  This reflected by decreased 
turbidity, nutrient levels and chlorophyll concentrations throughout Keehi Lagoon.

Guinther, E. (1988). Biological reconnaissance surveys of selected areas in Ke'ehi Lagoon, 
O'ahu, Hawai'i. OI Consultants, Inc., Honolulu.
Survey of site at outer end of N-S Seaplane Runway "D" extending off Kalihi Channel.  Scattered 
corals, abundant macroalgae and macroinvertebrates, few fish.  Coral and fish abundances 
increase immediately west of the channel

Harvey, G. W., Palmer, R. Q., Walker, J. R., and Krishna Kartha, T. D. (1971). Plan to enhance 
water quality in Keehi Lagoon and ponds makai of proposed reef runway. Ralph M. Parsons 
Company, Honolulu.
Current studies and analysis for design of circulation channels to enhance water circulation and 
quality with the construction of the reef runway.

Noda, E. K. and Associates (1978). Post construction circulation study for the reef runway at 
Honolulu International Airport. Ralph M. Parsons Co., Honolulu.
Current studies and calculations to estimate flushing of Keehi Lagoon following construction of 
the Reef Runway and compare with pre-construction conditions.  Flushing estimated to increase 
by 255 for tradewind conditions and 32% for light and variable winds.  Ironically, flushing under 
light-variable winds exceeded tradewind flushing by about 50%.  Flushing was much larger than 
the volume of a tidal prism, 31/2 to 51/2 times as much water than would be expected from a 
simple tidal prism transfer.  Major portion of the water transferred in a flushing was between 
Keehi lagoon and Honolulu Harbor.  In portions of Keehi Lagoon isolated from the main lagoon by 
runway construction, flushing was still high.  Water exchanged between Hickam Harbor and the 
marine pond was about 14% on a tidal cycle.  Between Hickam Harbor and the open ocean, 
about 26% of the total volume, or 2.24 times the tidal prism volume, was exchanged through the 
circulation channel.

OI Consultants Inc. (1986). Survey of the water quality, benthic habitat and infaunal populations 
for Keehi Lagoon, Hickam Harbor and marine pond, Honolulu International Airport. KFC Airport, 
Inc., Honolulu.
Follow-up study to 1979 post construction environmental assessments of effects of reef runway 
construction on circulation, water quality and biota of Keehi Lagoon.  Water quality conditions 
were not different, with a few exceptions, from the 1978-78 post construction results.  Any 
differences detected were not indicative of any pattern of degradation in overall water quality.  
Biotic communities were similar to previous conditions, with development of attached 
macrofauna, esp. sponges and the coral Pocillopora damicornis, which had become moderately 
common in 1986.  Total results suggested an overall stability of the biotic community through 
time.

Parsons, R. M. Inc. (1975). Environmental impact statement for the proposed disposal of solid 
waste bales in Keehi Lagoon and the coast waters of Oahu. Honolulu Dep. Pub. Works, 
Honolulu.
EIS for disposal of solid waste bales in Keehi lagoon marine pond, within area enclosed by 
proposed Reef Runway and offshore of  Hickam Golf Course.

Ala Wai Canal, Yacht Harbor and Kewalo Basin Annotated Bibliography

Brasfeild, C. W., and Chatham, C. E. (1967). Magic Island complex, including Kewalo basin and 
Ala Wai boat harbor, Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii. U. S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment 
Station, Honolulu.
Hydraulic model for testing effect of filling shoreline between Ala Wai and Kewalo Basin to create 
beaches adjacent to Ala Moana Park and Magic island.  Model indicated sufficient circulation to 
prevent stagnation of inner lagoon, but aggravation of unfavorable wave conditions existing in 
Kewalo Basin.

Calderone, P. A. (1971). A descriptive study of boat dwellers at the Ala Wai Yacht Harbor, 
Hawaii. Ph. D., Hawaii, Honolulu.
Narrative and socological analysis of lifestyles and views of residents of Ala Wai Yacht Harbor.

Cox, D., and Gordon, G., Jr. (1970). Estuarine pollution in the State of Hawaii.  Vol. 1. Statewide 
survey, Rep. No. Tech. Report  No. 31. Water Resources Research Center, Univ. Hawaii, 
Honolulu.
Description of formation of Ala Wai Canal, Yacht Harbor and Kewalo Basin by dredging in 1920s.  
Ala Wai Canal was dredge to drain marsh lands for mosquito control, and Yacht Harbor also 
constructed, but Ala Wai Channel was originally not dredged through the reef.  Instead, channel 
was dredged along the Ala Moana shoreline to the Kewalo Basin and Channel, which were 
dredged at about the same time.  The Ala Wai channel was later dredged in the 1950s and the 
shoreline channel filled at both ends.
Analyses performed in the 1960s indicated coliform concentrations ranging up to 70,000 
MPN/100 in the Ala Wai canal and median of 2400 MPN/100ml in the yacht harbor.  Kewalo 
Basin showed a median MPN of 2400/100ml and an upper value of 7000/100ml.  However, 
cannery wastes that were disposed of into the Basin at that time were rerouted to the munipal 
sewer system by the 1970s.

Department, of Transportation (1974). Draft environmental impact statement: Ala Wai Boat 
Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii. Pacific Ocean Division, Corps of Engineers, Honolulu.
Description of planned expansion of Ala Wai Harbor by 78 berths and its anticipated impact.  
Limited biological information given.

Giles, M. L. (1975). Wave and current conditions for various modifications of Kewalo Basin, 
Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii, Rep. No. H-75-15. U. S. Army Engineering Division, Pacific Ocean, 
Honolulu.
A 1:75 scale physical model was used to test several plans of improvement proposed to eliminate 
crosscurrents and breaking waves in the channel and undesirable wave action in Kewalo Basin.  
Determined that addition of a wave absorber along the sides of the entrance channel was the 
most effective means of reducing wave heights in the basin.

Gonzales, F. I. Jr. (1971). A descriptive study of the physical oceanography of the Ala Wai Canal, 
Rep. No. HIG-71-7. Hawaii Inst. Geophysics, Honolulu.
Circulation and the temperature-salinity structure of the Ala Wai Canal were measured  Mar.-Dec. 
1969.  Heavy siltation has altered the original bathymetry of the canal into a channel, sill and 
basin region.  Average silting rate on the sill was 20 cm/yr , renewal of water in the basin was 
infrequent, and anoxic conditions prevailed in the bottom meter of the average 2 m depth.   Water 
had a minimum average residence time below the sill of at least four days.  The Manoa-Palolo 
drainage was the principal source of high bacterial counts in the canal, although bacterial 
pollution from vessels in the Ala Wai Yacht Harbor was also a locally significant source.

Harbors Div. (1984). Environmental assessment, Kewalo Basin improvements, Honolulu, Hawaii. 
Hawaii State Department of Transportation, Honolulu.
Description of project to increase berthing capacity of Kewalo Basin from 122 to 191 berths by 
2000.  Very little information provided concerning existing environment or anticipated impacts.

Harris, C. L. (1972). Primary production in a small tropical estuary, Rep. No. HIG-75-7. Hawaii 
Inst. Geophysics, Honolulu.
Measurement of physical parameters, turbidity, particulate matter, chlorophyll and planktonic 
primary production at three stations in the Ala Wai Canal over 13 months in 1970-71 and 
occasionally at one station in Ala Wai Yacht Harbor.  High production rates, high chlorophyll and 
particulate concentrations and turbidity decreased with approach to Yacht Harbor.  Production 
primarily light limited except at Yacht  Harbor.  Percentage of suspended particulate matter that 
was living increased from 8% near Yacht Harbor to 30% at head of the canal.

Kusao, T. T. Inc. (1986). Environmental assessment report, Kewalo Basin landside 
improvements. Hawaii State Department of Transportation, Honolulu.
Description of land based activities associated with project to increase berthing capacity of 
Kewalo Basin from 122 to 191 berths by 2000.  Virtually no information provided concerning 
existing environment or anticipated impacts.

Luoma, S. N. (1974). Aspects of the Dynamics of Mercury Cycling in a Small Hawaiian Estuary. 
Ph. D., Hawaii, Honolulu.
Three indicator species, Nereis succinea, Palaemon dibilis (deposit feeders) and Thalamita 
crenata (predator) used to study the environmental dynamics of mercury in the Ala Wai Canal.  
The deposit feeders concentrated mercury 160-310 times above its concentrations in seawater.  
However, the predator 's muscle tissue concentration of mercury never exceeded 26% of its 
concentration in food, indicating no food chain magnification of mercury at this trophic level.  
Sediments in Ala Wai showed no obvious pattern of temporal variation, however there was an 
obvious decrease in total mercury in the two detritus feeders between the rainy and the dry 
season.

Miller, J. M. (1975). Ecological studies of the biota of the Ala Wai Canal, Rep. No. 32. Hawaii Inst. 
Mar. Biol., Honolulu.
A detailed description of the physical chemical parameters of temperature, oxygen, and salinity 
with regard to their horizontal, vertical and seasonal distributions in the waters of the Ala Wai 
Canal.  These parameters are in turn used to evaluate the distributions and species compositions 
of various marine organisms of recreation value and their associated food species.


Raymond, L. P. (1972). The environmental impacts of proposed construction (Phase I) for the Ala 
Wai Boat harbor. Hawaii State Dep. Transportation, Honolulu.
Analyses of environmental effects of expansion of  Ala Wai Yacht Harbor, measurements of water 
circulation and water quality in the harbor in July-Aug. 1972.  Data presented for temperature-
salinity, water circulation, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, primary productivity, coliform 
concentrations and boat activity.

Shultz, C. D. (1971). Some chlorinated pesticides in the water, sediment and selected biota in the 
Ala Wai Canal, a tropical estuary on Oahu, Hawaii, Rep. No. 28. Hawaii Inst. Mar. Biol., Honolulu.
Measurement of pesticide contamination in the Ala Wai Canal and its accumulation in tissues of 
the the fishes Elops hawaiensis and Chanos chanos.  Average concentrations for both species 
was below FDA limits, although individual fish did exceed these limits.  Major source of 
contamination appeared to the Manor-Palolo Drainage Canal, with Manoa Stream the larger 
contributor.  DDEE, DDD, DDT and dieldrin were the diominant pesticides throughout the Ala 
Wai.

Walker, J. R. (1973). Surfing assessment, Ala Wai Small Boat Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, Rep. No. 7. 
James K. K. Look Lab., Honolulu.
Effects of sea wall construction along shoreline at Ala Wai Yacht Harbor analyzed for impact on 
surfing by  wave refraction and reflection.  Both estimated to be increased by 10% and 
considered to be insignificant impacts.

Wolbrink, D. and Assoc. (1969). Ala Wai boat harbor, Honolulu, Hawaii. Hawaii State Dep. 
Transportation, Honolullu.
Plan for expansion and upgrading of Ala Wai harbor for a net increase of 359 slips, to be done by 
construction of one new mole and the extension.


Appendix B

Marine Invertebrates and Fishes Catalogued for Honolulu Harbor, Keehi Lagoon, Ala Wai Yacht 
Harbor and Canal, and Kewalo Basin in Bishop Museum Collections



Appendix C

Organisms reported by previous studies in Honolulu Harbor

Sources:
1972 : McCain and Peck (1972)
1973: McCain and Coles (1973); McCain et al. (1975)
1974: Environmental Consultants (1974)
1978: U. S. Army Corpes of Engineers (1978)
1982: AECOS (1982)
1988: AECOS (1988)
1990: Oceanit (1990)
1991-97: (Brock (1991,1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997)


Appendix D

Organisms observed at Honolulu Harbor Stations 1-15 
on 1997 Bishop Museum Surveys

