I. INTRODUCTION

In August 2001, biologists from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) and the National Marine Fisheries 
Service (NMFS) were asked to conduct an assessment of the national government=s capability to respond to major 
threats (e.g. anthropogenic and natural) to the marine habitat of the Republic of the Maldives.  The purpose for this 
assessment is to assist the Maldivian government plan for environmental disasters.  Pre-planning for environmental 
disasters could help the government avoid or reduce potential negative impacts to marine biological resources.  
Minimizing the risk of impacts directly benefits the Maldivian people who rely upon marine resources for daily 
subsistence and economic purposes.  

Biologists interviewed government leaders and employees, citizens and researchers and reviewed literature to 
identify threats and assess response capabilities.  In addition, a marine survey was conducted at selected locations to 
assess impacts to the marine environment.  Biologists documented reef fishes, corals, other macroinvertebrates, and 
algae, and provided general descriptions of the benthic community at each survey site.  This report was written by 
Service biologist Kevin Foster and NMFS biologist Alan Everson.

General Description of Habitat

The Maldive Archipelago is located at the northern center of the expansive Indian Ocean.  Roughly 868 kilometers 
in distance, the archipelago stretches from about 7?6'30" North Latitude and 72?50'25" East Longitude to 0?42'30" 
South Latitude and 73?05'55" East Longitude.  Approximately 1,200 low lying islets occur within 26 atolls.  The 
areal extent of the country is about 90,000 square kilometers, of which less than 4,500 square kilometers is land 
mass.  About 200 islets are inhabited by an estimated population of about 200,000.  Approximately 70,000 people, 
or one third of the country's population, live near the capital of Male, North Male Atoll.  

Coral reefs are structures built over time by living organisms called polyps.  Tiny polyps secrete limestone skeletons 
that make up the coral reef.  The primary type of coral reef found in the Maldives is the atoll, derived from the 
native name Aatolu.@  Atolls are ring-shaped limestone islands with a central lagoon and support low-lying islets.  
Most lagoons are shallow low energy environments and have evolved to support a complex biological web of plant 
and animal species where activities such as recruitment, foraging and loafing occur.  This complex relationship is 
known as a nearshore marine ecosystem.  Coral reefs serve as the foundation for tropical nearshore marine 
ecosystems.


Coral reefs function as buffers for lagoons and islets from oceanic swells and storm events.  They also reduce and 
disperse wave energy over the reef flat allowing islets to form and support terrestrial organisms and human 
inhabitants.  Maldivian islets typically sustain a small variety of terrestrial vegetation, invertebrates, reptiles, sea 
turtles, sea birds, shorebirds and fruit bats.   


Coral distribution is limited by numerous factors, such as: sedimentation, water temperature, and water quality.  
Dredging can destroy coral tissue by direct contact.  Sediments that become suspended in the water column may 
settle on coral polyps and smother them.  Sediments may also abrade planktonic larvae and render them non-viable.  
Water temperature also affects the viability of coral tissue.  Corals become stressed when temperatures vary from 
the optimal water temperature range of 25?C to 29?C.  Water quality is an important consideration for coral reefs.  
Elevated nutrients (e.g. phosphates or nitrates), petroleum products, or Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) may have 
lethal or sub-lethal affects upon corals.  Sewage and leachate from unlined landfills are primary sources of chemical 
contamination.    

Why biological resources are an important consideration for disaster preparedness

Marine resources provide substantial benefits to the people of the Maldives.  For example, fishing for skipjack tuna 
(Katsuwonus pelamis) supports a significant export market (about 22 percent of the Gross Domestic Product or 
GDP) and serves as the primary source of protein for Maldivians.  Maldivians primarily use the pole and line fishing 
gear to catch skipjack tuna.  This style of fishing relies upon bait fish that only occur within the various lagoons.  
Baitfish are dependent upon productive and healthy coral reef ecosystems for food, shelter and reproduction.  If 
coral reef habitats are compromised, baitfish populations could be adversely affected.  Reduced bait fish populations 
could, at best, require fishers to expend greater effort to catch them.  However, significantly fewer baitfish could 
translate into a shrinking supply of skipjack tuna.  If tuna supplies dwindle, local and export markets could be 
impaired, resulting in moderate to severe food shortages and economic deprivations for the Maldivian population. 

Maldivians derive a significant source of income (about 30 percent of the GDP) from the tourism industry.  A main 
attraction for tourists who visit the Maldives are the world renowned coral reefs.  Tourists engage in a variety of 
leisure activities such as swimming, snorkeling, scuba diving, surfing, sunbathing, and world class fishing.  The 
tourism industry employs many citizens, with secondary and tertiary distributions of wealth throughout the country.  
Preserving the Aeco-tourism@ trade is an integral component of the nation=s economy and existing quality of life.  
The current standard of living is directly related to a healthy marine ecosystem.

II.  THREATS 

Hazardous Materials: 

Oil Spills: Risk and Response Capabilities
 

Coral reefs are at risk of exposure to petroleum products accidentally spilled into the marine environment.  The 
major sources of exposure to petroleum products are from shipping and fuel storage facilities.  Potential sources of 
pollution include international shipping through lanes that occur in close proximity to the country; tankers that 
transport imported petroleum products into the country; and fuel storage facilities.  

Millions of gallons of petroleum product are transported by vessels through the northern Indian Ocean from 
southwest Asia to eastern Asia and beyond.  Approximately 300 million tons of product are shipped through 
Maldivian channels, bound for domestic and international destinations (Lt. Ahmed Jihad, pers. comm.).  Foreign, 
military, and domestic vessels use several international shipping lanes that bisect the Maldives at several junctures to 
transport product and cargo.  The AEquatorial Channel@ occurs between Foammulah Atoll and North Huvadhoo 
Atoll.  The AOne and A Half Degree Channel@ occurs between North Huvadhoo Atoll and Hadhdhunmathee Atoll.  
The Kardiva Channel is located between Goidhoo Atoll and North Male Atoll, about 5 degrees north latitude.  
Another international shipping lane skirts the northern part of the country at 8 degrees north latitude.  Potential 
pathways of exposure include wind and current driven slicks that could smother shallow coral reefs and cover 
shorelines.

Petroleum product and cargo are primarily transported to the capital and main population center of North Male Atoll 
by domestic and foreign vessels.  With one third of the nations population residing within this area, considerable 
vessel traffic frequents the atoll.  There are no major docking facilities and therefore, vessels must offload product 
and cargo piecemeal onto smaller vessels to be distributed at Male islet and elsewhere.  Pathways of exposure 
include vessel groundings, wind and current driven slicks.

Fuel storage facilities within North Male Atoll are constructed on small islets exposed to harsh corrosive conditions.  
It is feasible that over time these facilities may be compromised and could pose a great risk of leaking product into 
the aquatic environment.  The primary pathway of exposure is product leaching through porous limestone into 
groundwater and flushing into the lagoon. 

The Maldivian Coast Guard is the lead government agency to respond to the accidental release of petroleum 
products.  Colonel Ahmed Zahir, Director General of the Coast Guard is the point of contact for coordinating oil 
spill response activities.  Lieutenant Ahmed Jihad is the Operations Officer for conducting oil spill response 
activities.  The Coast Guard building is located by the main port on Male, North Male Atoll.  

In the event of a spill, the Coast Guard would coordinate its activities with the Ministries of Transportation and 
Environment.  The Coast Guard has few resources dedicated for oil spill response.  Several small and medium size 
vessels are used to recover product.  Also, these vessels may be used for other purposes including fire suppression 
and law enforcement.  Product recovery equipment includes one portable skimmer, 40 meters of flat boom and 200 
meters of sausage boom (Figure 1).  All supplies and materials are located in the Coast Guard building on Male islet. 


The Coast Guard is capable of responding to small harbor spills near Male Islet on a timely basis.  However, the 
Coast Guard lacks large skimmer vessels, and does not have adequate supplies of absorbent pads, boom, and 
dispersants to respond to spills of greater magnitude.  Furthermore, mobilizing response equipment to other remote 
locations in the country would require much logistical coordination and time since response equipment is currently 
centralized on Male islet.

The Maldivian government participated in the development of a coordinated regional contingency plan with five 
fellow south Asian States to assess the current status of coordinating regional response activities.  In December 
2000, the AReport of the High Level Meeting to Approve the Draft Regional Contingency Plan and the Draft 
Memorandum of Understanding on Preparedness and Response for the South Asian Region@ was prepared by 
representatives from the Maldives, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.  The draft plan will assess response 
capabilities of each member State.  Also, the draft plan proposes to serve as an instrument for neighbor States to 
solicit spill response assistance during catastrophic events. 

Human Induced:

Coral and Sand Mining 

The expansive coral reefs of the Maldives form the foundation for stabilizing the atolls and individual islands from 
the forces of erosion.  The reefs provide protection from high waves and storm surges.  Healthy reefs are also better 
able to keep pace with the forces of sea-level rise.  They are intimately tied to fisheries in the Maldives.  The 
popularity of the Maldives as a tourist destination has increased dramatically since the early 1970s and tourism has 
replaced fisheries exports as the primary contributor to the Maldivian economy.  Many of the tourists come to the 
Maldives to view what have been called the finest coral reefs in the Indian Ocean.  

Coral mining has resulted in widespread degradation of shallow reef-flat areas (Clarke and Edwards, 1999) and has 
spread to the leeward side of the outer atoll rim on some islands.   Reefs may recover from the effects of mining 
albeit at a very slow rate, if they recover at all (Clarke and Edwards, 1994).  Apparently, traditional mining of coral 
for building materials was thought to be sustainable before increasing population and demands from the tourist 
industry greatly increased demand.  Whether this activity was ever sustainable is a mute point.  Most experts agree 
that coral mining has had enormous impacts on the Maldivian reefs (Brown and Dunne, 1988).

Regulations for coral and sand mining have been in place since 1992.  These include limits on the areas where 
mining is allowed, the types of construction activities allowed and a permit requirement for any coral and sand 
mining.  Since 1992, logbooks have been issued with permits to record locations and quantities of coral and sand 
collected for construction purposes.  Unfortunately, little archipelago wide monitoring takes place to verify logbook 
data.  Trends indicate that coral mining is gradually being phased out as people change to using concrete blocks for 
building material.  Illegal mining and lack of enforcement continue to be major problems.   Large quantities of 
massive sized coral heads (including many of the fragile branching species) are used for breakwaters, seawalls, and 
harbor construction for tourist resorts.  

Although the gradual replacement of mined coral with concrete blocks is a positive step, this has caused an increase 
in the demand for sand for the manufacture of the blocks.  This increased demand may cause similar deleterious 
impacts to reef structure, unless mining can be restricted both geographically and by volume of sand that is removed 
from any one area.

Effects of Sewage and Solid Waste Disposal 

The nearshore marine ecosystem is at risk from sewage dumping into lagoons.  At the main population center of 
Male, untreated sewage is pumped into the ocean from 8 separate sewage pipes that service approximately 4,400 
households (1990 Ministry of Health).   Effluent dilutes into the ocean as it exits the diffuser pipes.  Corals in the 
immediate dilution zone are vulnerable to elevated nutrient levels and smothering.

In outlying atolls and villages, septic tank systems are commonly used by Maldivians.  Sewage may quickly 
permeate the porous limestone islet and contaminate groundwater that runs only a few feet underground.  
Contaminated groundwater is flushed into the lagoon, particularly during rain storms, and can have adverse impacts 
on a low-energy lagoon environment by overloading it with excess nutrients associated with raw sewage.  Nutrients 
(e.g. phosphates and nitrates) are a source of food for marine plants (e.g. seagrass/algae).  Increased nutrient levels 
may be the catalyst that sparks the expansion of marine plants to abnormally high levels.  If the rate of plant 
expansion exceeds the rate of plant consumption by herbivorous fishes, marine plants may dominate the benthic 
community (Figure 2) and displace other benthic community organisms, such as coral species.  If unchecked, a 
monotypic habitat may form resulting in the loss of biological diversity at the community level.  Furthermore, as 
coral reefs are degraded and displaced, their function as wave energy buffers may be weakened or lost.  This may 
result in moderate to severe shoreline erosion.

Landfills and smaller solid waste sites are also sources of contamination that may negatively impact marine 
ecosystems.  PCBs, metals, insecticides, pesticides, and petroleum products may be disposed in landfills or solid 
waste sites. Contaminants may leak from their original containment and leach into the groundwater, and ultimately 
into the ocean.  Leachate may be a source of chronic contamination that could have lethal and sublethal affects upon 
biological organisms.  Contaminants may biomagnify through the food chain, from smaller herbivores to larger 
carnivores and apex predators.  It is possible that the human population may be exposed to contaminants if affected 
organisms are consumed.   Thila fushi landfill (Figure 5) serves as the countries= largest landfill.  Approximately 
240 tons per day of solid waste is dumped and burned at this landfill (Ahmed Jameel, pers. comm.).  Smaller solid 
waste sites exist for every community throughout the Republic of the Maldives.  These sites occur in remote 
locations, apart from the residential areas, along the side of the road and usually in proximity to the shoreline where 
debris can easily be disposed (Figure 2).  




Fishing


Fishing continues to be a major contributor to the Maldivian economy.  It provides the primary source of protein for 
the native inhabitants (Figure 3) and is an important export commodity.  The tuna fishery and associated baitfishery 
are still the dominant fishing activities.  In recent years, fishing for reef fish to supply food to the tourist industry and 
for collection of fish for the aquarium fish industry has increased significantly.  There are indications that bait fish 
are becoming more and more difficult to obtain in sufficient quantities.  In addition, both the aquarium industry and 
the increased demand on the reef as a food source for the tourist and export trade have resulted in a noticeable 
decrease in catch rates in many of the atolls.  Whether this is due to natural fluctuations in productivity, human 
induced perturbations such as those described above, overfishing, or a combination of all of these factors is difficult 
to determine.

Dredging, Reclamation, Coastal Construction

Increases in the number of major coastal construction projects may also have adverse affects on the islets natural 
ability to mitigate the effects of a disaster.  Construction of jetties, breakwaters, and seawalls may disrupt the natural 
transport of sand, thereby increasing erosion.  Dredging can cause direct destruction of habitat and alter current 
movements through the creation of ripple currents (Nickerson and Maniku, 1997).  These activities also result in 
increased sedimentation of coral colonies.  Susceptible species may smother and die.  Coastal reclamation projects 
may cause similar results and may destroy  valuable wetlands.  Wetlands act as a filter for landbased pollutants and 
can enhance groundwater recharge.  In addition, the ability of the reef flat to dissipate wave energy may be severely 
compromised.  Removal of coastal vegetation for these projects also adversely affects erosion and accretion.    

Natural Impacts:

Coral Bleaching

In 1998, a severe bleaching event resulted in a significant loss of corals, particularly in the shallow water 
environment.  The bleaching event involved an increase of ocean water temperatures by about 2 - 3 degree Celsius 
from normal temperatures for a sustained period in the Indian Ocean.  The bleaching event resulted in high mortality 
for coral species across the Maldivian archipelago, and the government reports coral coverage losses to range 
between 90 and 100 percent.  Coral mortality was recorded to depths of 30 meters.  Acropora and Pocillopora spp. 
were among the species most affected by the bleaching event.  Coral species more resilient to the bleaching event 
included Porties, Favia, Favities, and Diploastrea sp.  Certain isolated locations (e.g. channel entrance, Hithadhoo 
Islet, Addu Atoll) were relatively unaffected by the bleaching event.



Storm surge, high waves, sea level rise/subsidence, tsunamis


Storm surge, high waves, sea level rise/subsidence, and tsunamis are natural events that may have increased in 
recent years.  In 1987, high waves caused extensive flooding at Male Islet.  In 1991, some of the worst storms were 
recorded.  A tidal wave recently reported at Addu Atoll caused moderate property damage and one person was 
killed.  In addition, sea level is rising at a rate of about 2 millimeters per year worldwide (Goreau, 1997).  Add to 
this the fact that the Maldives are simultaneously sinking at about 1 to 2 millimeters per year strongly reinforces the 
need to make every effort to protect the coral reefs natural ability to mitigate against these impacts.  Goreau (1997)  
remarked that reefs must be kept free from stress to insure that they remain healthy and capable of keeping up with 
seal level rise, while generating sand for beaches, habitat for fish, and shoreline protection.  This is especially 
important considering the predictions for an increase in global temperatures, associated storm events and rising sea 
levels. 

III. VULNERABLE RESOURCES 

The following areas in the marine environment were identified as vulnerable and should receive the maximum 
amount of consideration for protection when planning disaster response activities.

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are the foundation of marine ecosystems throughout the Maldive archipelago.  They provide important 
ecological functions such as food, shelter, and opportunities to reproduce for thousands of marine organisms and 
serve as natural shoreline protection for the many islets that occur within atolls. However, coral reefs have been 
degraded due to the cumulative adverse effects of coral bleaching.  Anthropogenic inputs, such as dredging, 
shoreline hardening, sewage, oil spills or other contaminants may cumulatively affect coral re-colonization in areas 
already degraded by the bleaching event. Therefore, planners should identify areas where coral reefs are at risk and 
implement effective measures to control activities when practicable. 

Bait-fish  grounds

Baitfish are found around shallow coral reef slopes throughout the Maldives.  A variety of species are utilized, 
though sprats, fusiliers and cardinalfishes are most commonly used.  Without these baitfish there would be no pole 
and line tuna fishery.  Threats to baitfish include destruction of habitat due to coral mining, overfishing, and black 
coral collecting (Nickerson and Maniku 1997).  Other threats include destruction of the reef due to bleaching and 
pollution.  As previously mentioned, it is important to maintain the quality of the offshore waters and reef structure 
so the resource will have a better chance of recovering from a natural disaster.

A fuel spill could have disastrous impacts to baitfish through direct mortality of the individual fish species or 
through the secondary impacts associated with destruction of baitfish habitat.  It is imperative that the primary 
baitfish grounds are identified and mapped.  These areas should be designated as high priority and protected during 
petroleum product spills.

Sea Turtles and their  Nesting Habitat 

The green (Chelonia mydas) and the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) sea turtles are known to occur throughout 
the Maldives.  Nesting sites for both species are known from several atolls in the archipelago.  Other species, 
infrequently observed in the Maldives, include olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), 
and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) sea turtles, and are not known to nest in the Maldives.

Since the 1940's, widespread exploitation of sea turtle adults, juveniles and eggs supplied meat and shells to the 
local, tourist, and export markets.  Exploitation for turtle products peaked in the 1970's during the expansion of the 
tourist industry.  Recent legislation to conserve sea turtles and habitat includes: setting minimum carapace sizes; 
banning the exports of unprocessed hawksbill turtles; and the 1995 Presidential Decree that bans killing sea turtles 
within the territorial waters of the Maldives for a period of ten years.  Turtle eggs are still consumed by local 
Maldivians.  However, the government is working to identify important nesting habitat to be considered for future 
protection.  The Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources has developed a preliminary list that 
identifies important sea turtle nesting habitat (See Attachment 2).

Seabirds and Migratory birds  


About 147 species of seabirds and migratory birds visit or inhabit various locations throughout the archipelago (Ash 
and Shafeeg, 1994).  Historically, birds have been an important part of the Maldivian diet.  Harvest pressure on birds 
and eggs has increased in recent years with the expansion of the local population.  Introduced alien plants and 
rodents have negatively affected birds through displacement of native vegetation and predation upon young birds 
and eggs.  Another factor affecting birds is the loss of native habitat due to deforestation as a result of population 
expansion and the development of tourist resorts.  Birds are vulnerable to contaminants and debris associated with 
solid waste sites.  Birds may be exposed to lethal doses of contaminants or suffer sublethal affects that may retard 
their ability to evade predators, forage, or reproduce.  

In 1993, the national government enacted the Environment Protection and Preservation Act to protect and conserve 
biological resources and habitat.  Several species of seabirds and endemic birds are afforded protection under this 
legislation.  Currently, researchers at the Marine Research Center are working to identify important bird habitat 
throughout the country.  Foraging, loafing, and nesting sites are key among the areas to be identified and protected 
under this legislation.  



   
No-Take Marine Protected Areas


No-take Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have proved to be a viable method for protecting and enhancing coral reef 
resources.  Island areas such as Hawaii have successfully used MPAs to protect vast areas from the pressures of 
development and over-fishing.  MPAs have been established throughout the Maldives (Attachment 1) in an effort to 
protect prime dive sites used by the tourist industry.  These areas should be included in the GIS database and receive 
high priority for protection during a fuel, oil spill or other type of contaminant release event into the marine 
environment.


More `No-take' MPAs should be established to further protect vulnerable coral reef habitats and rare species.  This 
is especially important in light of the recent increase in the exploitation of reef fish for the tourist and aquarium fish 
trade.  Coral reef fisheries are particularly vulnerable to overfishing.  True >No-Take= MPAs can serve to reduce 
fishing pressure and may increase productivity to areas open to fishing through increased recruitment and 
emigration.  These MPAs can also be used as research sites to monitor natural and human induced environmental 
changes. 
  


IV. MARINE BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SELECTED SITES

A marine survey was conducted at selected locations to assess obvious impacts to the marine environment at North 
and South Male Atolls.  The survey was limited in scope due to the brief amount of time afforded to biologists to 
conduct in water work.  Survey sites were selected based upon threats identified by the government and time 
constraints to conduct the assessment.  Primary concerns identified by the government included coral bleaching, 
coastal erosion, and the effects of contaminants upon the environment.

	Survey Methodology

Marine surveys were conducted between the hours of 0900 and 1500, using a Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) 
technique.  Surveys were made by traversing or swimming over the reef in a meandering fashion with a minimum 
amount of backtracking.  Marine species and habitats were surveyed at lagoon reef slopes and pinnacles by diving 
with scuba from a boat.  The Maldivian Coast Guard provided a 35 foot speed boat to support dive operations.  We 
were accompanied by Coast Guard divers Corporal Yoosuf Nishar and Lance Corporal Mohamed Hamdan during 
each dive.

The presence of corals, other invertebrates, algae, and reef fishes were recorded.  Emphasis was given to identifying 
conspicuous, diurnally active species.  As a result, small, cryptic, and nocturnally active species are under-
represented in the data.  Qualitative descriptions of the benthic habitat are provided for each survey station. 

The survey team responsible for the investigation included Service biologist Kevin Foster (corals, 
macroinvertebrates and algae) and NMFS biologist Alan Everson (reef fish).  Several species of coral were 
identified by Mr. William Allison, Coral Reef Ecologist, Coral Reef Ecology and Management, Rangas, First Floor, 
Violet Magu, Henveyru, Male, Maldives, and we are grateful for his assistance.
	Results

North Male Atoll - Thila Fushi Landfill Survey Site (August 22, 2001)

Habitat
This survey site is located at the reef slope adjacent to the landfill on the southern side of Thila Fushi Islet (Figure 
5). The survey was conducted along the 15 meter contour in a west to east direction. The ocean environment is low-
energy with mild influences from prevailing winds and swells.  A moderately sloping reef supports a diverse 
community of soft corals, invertebrates and reef fish.  Coral coverage is estimated to make up less than five percent 
of the benthic habitat.  Suspended sediments limited visibility to about 14 meters.

Biota
Species observations included: eighteen species of coral from 8 families; forty-eight species of reef fish from 18 
families; thirty species of macroinvertebrates from 19 families; and three species of algae from 3 families.

Location Coordinates
4 degrees 11 minutes 41.98 seconds North Latitude
73 degrees 26 minutes 20.81 seconds East Longitude

North Male Atoll - Furanafushi Channel (August 29, 2001)

This survey is conducted in the Furanafushi channel, located between the islets of Furanafushi and Kuredhigadu, 
North Male Atoll (Figure 8).    The survey was conducted along the 20 meter contour in an east to west direction.  
This is a high-energy environment with influences from strong in-coming and out-going tides through the channel.  
The northern reef slopes moderately to the bottom of the channel, to a depth of 27 meters.  The reef slope supports a 
diverse community of invertebrates, corals, and reef fish.  Coral coverage is estimated to make up less than ten 
percent of the benthic habitat.  Visibility was about 20 meters.  

Biota
Species observations included: nine species of coral from 6 families; forty-eight species of reef fish from 19 
families; twelve species of macroinvertebrates from 12 families; and one species of algae from 1 families.

Location Coordinates
4 degrees 15 minutes 19.41 seconds North Latitude
73 degrees 32 minutes 41.52 seconds East Longitude

South Male Atoll - Sand Mining Site 1 (SMS1) (August 23, 2001)

This survey site is located at a lagoon pinnacle in proximity (about 75 meters) to a sand mining operation on the 
northeastern reef flat (Finolhu Falhu) of South Male Atoll (Figure 6).  The survey was conducted along the 10 meter 
contour in a clockwise manner around the pinnacle.  The ocean environment is moderate-energy with influences 
from reef-flat swept waves.  Large deposits of sand exist on the reef flat in close proximity to the study site.  A large 
pinnacle supports a moderately diverse community of invertebrates, corals, and reef fish.  Coral coverage is 
estimated to make up less than ten percent of the benthic habitat.  Suspended sediments limited visibility to about 7 
meters.  

Biota
Species observations included: twenty-one species of coral from 5 families; thirty-four species of reef fish from 11 
families; twenty-two species of macroinvertebrates from 20 families; and three species of algae from 3 family.

Location Coordinates
4 degrees 7 minutes 08.38 seconds North Latitude
73 degrees 30 minutes 25.73 seconds East Longitude

South Male Atoll - Sand Mining Site 2 (SMS2) (August 23, 2001)

This survey site is located on the inner reef slope, inside the lagoon, in the vicinity (about 300 meters) of a sand 
mining operation on the northeastern reef flat (Finolhu Falhu) of South Male Atoll (Figure 7).  The survey was 
conducted along the 15 meter contour in a west to east direction.  The ocean environment is moderate-energy with 
influences from reef-swept waves.  A steeply sloping reef supports a community of invertebrates, corals, and reef 
fish.  Coral coverage is estimated to make up less than ten percent of the benthic habitat.  Suspended sediments 
limited visibility to about 10 meters.  

Biota
Species observations included: sixteen species of coral from 8 families; twelve species of reef fish from ten families; 
thirteen species of macroinvertebrates from 12 families; and two species of algae from 2 families.

Location Coordinates
4 degrees 7 minutes 04.19 seconds North Latitude
73 degrees 30 minutes 57.14 seconds East Longitude





	Marine Survey Discussion

A total of 46 species of coral, 100 species of reef fishes, 49 species of noncoral macro-invertebrates, and five species 
of macroalgae were recorded at the four survey stations.  At the Thila Fushi Landfill site, we noted that coral 
diversity, and abundance was low.  This may be attributed to the 1998 bleaching event.  Very few new coral recruits 
were observed at this site.  We did not observe obvious signs of stress, such as tumors or lesions on marine 
organisms.  However, we believe that a sampling effort should be conducted to ascertain whether marine organisms 
are exposed to contaminants that may leach from the landfill into the ocean.  Undertaking a sampling effort at lower 
trophic levels would provide clues to whether contaminants present a risk of exposure to the human population 
through the consumption of marine organisms.  We highly recommend that a long term monitoring site be 
established at this location to evaluate the community structure and re-colonization of the benthic habitat by coral 
species, as well as affects of leachate from the landfill on marine organisms.

At Furanafushi Channel, we observed low coral coverage and low coral species diversity. Few coral recruits were 
observed.  Reef fish were well represented and invertebrate species were observed at this location.

At the Sand Mining Site 1, coral coverage and diversity is low.  Low coral coverage may be attributed to the 1998 
bleaching event.  Few coral recruits were observed.  Other classes of organisms, such as reef fish and invertebrates 
appear to be well represented.  We observed a labor intensive sand mining operation in the area.  A local vessel, 
about 6 meters in length was anchored on the reef flat.  Three crew were deployed in the water to fill sand into rice 
bags and pass them onto the vessel.  Modest amounts of suspended sediment are mobilized in the water column by 
this activity, as well as wind and current driven waves washing over the reef flat.  We do not believe this scale of 
operation significantly affects coral species in this area.  

At Sand mining site 2, we observed low coral coverage and few coral recruits.  Few reef fish and invertebrates were 
observed at this station.  The low species observations may be attributed to the 1998 bleaching event and low 
circulation.  

In summary, we observed low coral coverage, moderate to low coral species diversity, and low levels of coral 
recruitment at all four sites.  Clearly, the effects of the 1998 bleaching event continues to adversely affect the marine 
environment at these locations.   The relative biological diversity of reef fish, macroinvertebrates and algae species 
ranged from low to moderately represented.   Long term monitoring should be employed at representative locations 
to evaluate whether coral reef species diversity and abundance will recover to levels comparable to previous 
conditions.  

At the Thila Fushi landfill site, obvious signs of stress, such as tumors or lesions on reef fish or corals were not 
observed.  Tissue sampling of marine biota to determine exposure to contaminants was beyond the scope of this 
assessment.  Contaminants may pose lethal or sublethal risks to marine organisms that occur near landfills or 
solidwaste sites.  Therefore, we highly recommend tissue sampling of territorial herbivorous reef fish, such as 
damselfish fish and other organisms in the study area, to evaluate marine biota exposure to contaminants.

Limited sand mining operations do not appear to significantly impact coral reef resources.  However, large and 
concentrated sand removal operations should be monitored for alteration of normal sand deposits and affects upon 
the benthic habitat.  Other forms of habitat alteration, such as dredging, coastal erosion, sewage disposal, and 
shoreline hardening should be evaluated for impacts to marine biological communities.  

In conclusion, we believe the original benthic habitat and biological community may have been significantly altered 
as a result of the 1998 bleaching event.  Human controlled activities may negatively impact the remaining coral reefs 
and further degrade them.  Also, these activities may confound coral recruitment and recolonization of coral reefs to 
conditions prior to the 1998 bleaching event.  Therefore, it is incumbent upon decision-makers to promote the wise 
use of coral reef resources by employing a precautionary approach when planning development activities and 
protecting existing coral reefs when practical.

 V.  RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations have been developed and based, in part, upon interviews, literature research and 
marine surveys.  The Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management in the Maldives (1997) provided some 
excellent recommendations on comprehensive resource management, and our recommendations mirror many of 
those previously outlined at the workshop.   These recommendations are intended to stabilize natural processes in 
order to mitigate cumulative man-made and natural threats to marine resources. 

Oil Spill Response
(1) Identify high risk areas where oil spills are likely to occur (e.g. ports, fuel storage facilities, entrance channels 
and major shipping lanes).  Also, identify natural resources that occur in these  areas and protect them by developing 
a strategy for containment and deflection (e.g. deflection booms).

(2) Purchase additional skimmer equipment and boom, and position this equipment in areas where the Coast Guard 
could quickly respond to spills at high risk areas.

(3) Work with neighbor States to finalize the Draft Regional Area Contingency Plan.  

(4) Conduct mock spill response exercises for small, medium, and large spills at high risk locations.  Coast Guard 
should coordinate spill response with other Maldivian Ministries (e.g. Transportation or Environment) and neighbor 
States.  If possible, coordinate mock spill response exercise with the U.S. Navy based at Diego Garcia.  

(5) If possible, contact the USCG Marine Safety Office (MSO) Honolulu for technical advice to conduct oil spill 
response activities within coral reef environments.  Contact Information: United States Coast Guard, Marine Safety 
Office, 433 Ala Moana Blvd., Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, Telephone 808/522-8260, Facsimile 808/522-8270. 

Effects of Sewage, and Solid Waste Disposal
(1) Sample selected marine organisms over time to determine the type and level of contaminants that may leach 
from the Thila Fushi landfill and adversely affect species.  

(2) Outer Atolls: Consider designing an alternative sewage system that disposes sewage at the community level 
rather than individual residential septic systems.  A collective community system could be designed to pump 
effluent into deep water where high energy wind and ocean driven currents could disperse sewage away from the 
lagoon and shoreline. 


Monitor and Rehabilitate Representative Coral Reefs

(1) Monitor representative coral reefs throughout the Maldives, including Marine Protected Areas, to assess the 
present and future status of marine biological communities.

(2) Rehabilitate degraded reefs by improving water quality conditions and suitable substrate for coral recolonization.

Establish  >No-Take= Marine Protected Areas

Protect coral reefs to the maximum extent practicable by establishing representative Marine Protected Areas that do 
not allow the harvest of marine organisms.  A growing wealth of evidence indicates that Ano-take@ MPAs can act as 
reservoirs for species recovery.  Develop a schedule that prioritizes the implementation of MPA status for coral reefs 
in order of greatest need for protection. 

Protect Sea Turtle and Seabird Habitat

Sea turtle and seabird habitat should be identified throughout the country.  Representative areas that support nesting, 
foraging and loafing grounds should be protected to preserve species viability.  We recommend the harvest of sea 
turtle eggs and sub-adults be reduced to the maximum extent practicable to facilitate species recovery.

Regulatory

(1) Control coral mining and large scale sand mining

(2) Implement fishery regulations that control overfishing of reef fish; and regulate the export of reef fish for the 
aquarium trade and the bioprospecting trade.

(3) Establish effective environmental laws that provide strong protection for coral reef resources and rare species. 

VI.  DISASTERS RESPONSE ORGANIZATIONS 

The following is a list of potential disaster scenarios that could play out in the Republic of the Maldives and the 
federal agencies responsible for providing oversight.

! Fuel Spill - The Ministry of Defense and National Security, Coast Guard is the lead 
agency to respond to fuel spills in the ocean.  The Coast Guard will coordinate with the 
Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment

! Coral /Sand Mining - The Ministry Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, 
Environmental Research Center (ERC) will coordinate with the Ministry of Fisheries, 
Agriculture and Marine Resources, Marine Research Center (MRC) to manage coral and 
sand mining impacts to the marine environment.

! Sewage - The Ministry of Construction and Public Works, Public Works Department will 
coordinate with the ERC and MRC to manage sewage impacts to the environment.

! Solid Waste Disposal - The Ministry of Construction and Public Works, Public Works 
Department will coordinate with the ERC and MRC to manage solid waste impacts to the 
environment.

! Overfishing - The Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources, Fisheries 
Department is responsible for managing all fishing activities within the Republic of the 
Maldives.

! Harbor Dredging/Coastal Construction - The Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and 
Environment, ERC coordinates with the Ministry of Construction and Public Works and 
MRC concerning dredging and construction impacts to the environment.

! Deforestation/Erosion - The Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, ERC 
is responsible for managing deforestation and erosion impacts to the environment.

! Contamination/overpumping of freshwater lens - The Ministry of Construction and 
Public Works coordinates with the Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and the 
Environment, ERC concerning contamination and freshwater issues.

! List of Contacts:  Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources, Marine 
Resource Center - Zaha Waheed and  Marie Saleem; Ministry of Home Affairs Housing 
and Environment - Ahmed Jameel, Hudha Ahmed, Environmental Research Center - 
Mohamed Ali, Amjad Abdullah, Mahmood Rijaz, and Geoff Dews; Coast Guard - Col 
Ahmed Zahir, Director General, and Lt. Ahmed Jihad; Ministry of Planning (Gan Islet, 
Addu Atoll) - Shahid Ali, Aisham Dasheed, and Hithadhoo School Assistant Principal 
Abdullah Didi; Kulhudhuffushi Islet - Ibrahin Farhood, Island Chief; and Hanimaadhoo 
Islet - Mohamed Qasim.

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