#TEMPORARY ACCESSION NUMBER:
#ACCESSION NUMBER:

#CONTRIBUTOR:
Dr. Franklyn Tan Te
Dr. Paul Jokiel
Dr. Evelyn F. Cox

#CONTRIBUTOR INSTITUTION:
Dr. Te
Department of Zoology
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Dr. Jokiel and Dr. Cox
Hawaii Institue of Marine Biology
PO Box 1346
Kaneohe HI 96744

#ORIGINATOR:
same

#ORIGINATOR INSTITUTION:
same

#TITLE: 
Sediment Processes on the Coral Reefs of
Kahoolawe: A Rapid Field Assessment in 1993

#ABSTRACT: 
The nearshore coral ecosystems of Kahoolawe were rapidly assessed
in 1993.  Surveys were made of the coral coverage, fish
communities, and sediment types from 19 locations.  This
data has been published in a technical report (Jokiel et. al,
1995) and a PhD Dissertation (Te, 2000)

#PURPOSE:  
Assess the status of the coral ecosystems and the
extent to which anthropogenic factors such
as soil runoff has affected the marine environment.

#LOCATION EXTREMES:
SOUTHERNMOST LATITUDE: 20.51 
SOUTHERNMOST LATITUDE HEMISPHERE: N
NORTHERNMOST LATITUDE: 20.60 
NORTHERNMOST LATITUDE HEMISPHERE: N
WESTERNMOST LONGITUDE: 156.71
WESTERNMOST LONGITUDE HEMISPHERE: W 
EASTERNMOST LONGITUDE: 156.53
EASTERNMOST LONGITUDE HEMISPHERE: W  

#LOCATION KEYWORDS: 
Kahoolawe, Hawaii, North Pacific

#SAMPLING STATIONS: 
19 sites total. Map.
../../data/ms_word/Figure2_1.doc

Complete list at:
../../data/ms_word/Table1_2.doc or
../../data/txt/Table1_2.txt

#BEGIN AND END DATES: 
(yyyymmdd)
19930322 - 19930529

#SAMPLING PERIODS:
see file
../../data/ms_word/Table1_2.doc or
../../data/txt/Table1_2.txt

#PARAMETERS: 
grain size of sediments
description of sediments
mineralogy of sediments
coral coverage (% of substratum)
coral diversity
number of coral species
mean diameter of coral colonies
fish diversity
species richness

#METHODOLOGY:

Sediment Sample collection and preparation Bulk Samples.
  Sediments were collected at 19 sites around the island at the same sites 
where coral community composition was measured.   When possible, sediment 
samples were collected from two depths (3m and 10m).  A hand-held plastic 
scoop was used to collect samples in areas along the transect lines that
had sediment accumulation. These transect lines were also used in the fish 
and coral surveys (Cox et al., 1993).   About four scoops (roughly 40-100 
grams) of unconsolidated surface sediment were taken at each station and 
placed into plastic bags  (Whirlpak brand).   These plastic bags were
then sealed and stored in wet condition for later analysis by wet sieving 
(McManus, 1988).

Core Samples.                                                    
  Core samples were taken from 5 randomly chosen sites along the northern 
coastline of Kahoolawe.  Observations from the first site visit in March 1993, 
suggested that the northern coast was heavily sedimented and an in-depth 
investigation of sediment loads impacting these areas was undertaken.
Core samples were obtained in replicates of two at 50 m intervals, starting 
at the water line on the beach and moving seaward through the central part 
of each bay.  Polyvinylchloride  (PVC) pipes of 18 mm in diameter and 300 mm 
length were used as sampling devices at each station.  The PVC core samplers
were manually pushed into the sediment and both ends capped tightly in the 
water before being brought up to the surface.   All the core samples were 
kept frozen prior to analysis.

  A modified core extraction method was used due to the small diameter 
of the cores (18 mm).  Briefly, the core samples were allowed to thaw 
and then extracted from the PVC samplers by opening the lower end cap 
first and then slowly opening the top cap.  The sediment cores came out 
slowly from the tubes after the top cap was removed.  In a few cases when 
the cores were too sticky, a small glass-tip plunger was used to slowly 
push air through the PVC sampler and extrude the remaining sediment core.
The length of the extracted cores was then measured, and the number and 
size of layers per core were noted.  The type, texture and the color of 
each layer per core were also noted.
 
Sample analysis Size Fraction Determination
  Sediment samples were wet sieved through standard brass sieves (USA 
Standard Testing Sieve: A.S.T.M.E.-11 specifications with opening 
diameters of 500 um and 63 um) and categorized into 3 size
fractions: silt (<63\264m), fine sand (>63 um but <500 um) and coarse 
sand (>500 um).  The wet samples were individually shaken and manually 
mixed while still in the plastic bags.  The homogeneous mixture was then
sub sampled (range 30-60 grams) for sieving.   The sub samples were washed 
through the 500-um sieve into the 63 um sieve with filtered fresh water.  
Washings were done with a hand-held wash bottle and all the washings through 
the 63-um sieve were collected onto a brass pan.  The sediment fraction 
remaining on each sieve was then washed through pre-weighed filter paper 
(Whatman # 114) and air-dried for about a week.   These filtered samples were 
then weighed and the total weight of the sample per station from each
transect site was determined.  The percent by weight of each fraction was 
then determined by calculating the ratio of the different size fractions to 
the total sample weight (McManus, 1988).

 Size fraction determinations were also performed on the core samples.  
Cores with noticeable stratigraphic layers were cross-sectioned at 
the demarcation point and sub samples from each layer (ranging from 
20-50 grams) were taken for wet sieving.

Chemical Composition Determination
 Mineral composition of the sediment samples was determined by X-ray 
diffraction analysis (XRD) as described by Hardy and Tucker  (1988).  
The analysis was performed by Mr. Clark Sherman of the University of 
Hawaii's School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology  (SOEST).  Samples 
were ground up using a mortar and pestle and the powdered sediment was 
then placed on smear slides.  These slides were then loaded into an 
automatic sample loader and fed to the Scintag Pad V X-ray diffractometer
connected to a solid-state Germanium  (Ge) detector tuned to Copper (Cu)  
K  radiation.  Two runs per sample were performed.  First, a general scan 
was done to determine the overall mineralogy of the sediments. This run 
was performed with the machine set at a range of 2 deg 2f to 70 deg 2f with 
a rate of 5 deg 2f per minute.  The second run was performed at a much 
narrower range of 22 deg 2f to 32 deg 2f with a rate of 1 deg 2f
per minute to quantitatively determine the carbonate mineralogy of the 
sediments.  Aragonites to calcite ratios were determined using the methods of 
Sabine (1991) and the mole % Magnesium  (Mg) content of the calcite fraction 
was determined using the procedures established by Bischoff et al. (1983).
  The possible sources of calcite in each sample can be ascertained based on 
the mole % Mg content of the calcite fraction.   Specifically, the mole % Mg 
is the amount of Mg atoms substituting the calcium (Ca) atoms at the Ca 
binding sites in the crystal structure of CaCO3.  Calcareous organisms have
distinctive ratios of Mg to Ca substitutions in the calcite produced.   
Representative groups of organisms and their respective mole % Mg content 
were based on Table 5.2 of Morse and Mackenzie (1990).
 A subset of the total sediment samples collected from Kahoolawe was analyzed 
by x-ray diffraction.   These samples were selected from sites that best 
represented the different and unique regions along the coast.

Coral Reef Sampling Methods
  At each site, visual inspections of the entire area by skin diving 
were first conducted.  Stations for quantitative surveys were selected 
as areas with typical coral reef structure.  Most sites included two
stations, one at 10 m and one at 3 m depth.  Coral cover was estimated 
in 5 contiguous 1 m2 quadrats haphazardly taken along a 25 m transect
line at 3m and 10 m isobaths at each site (Jokiel and Maragos, 1978; 
Maragos and Jokiel, 1986; Jokiel and Tyler, 1992).  One observer recorded 
visual estimates of percent cover of each species within the quadrat
and notations of additional species observed outside of the sampled 
area were recorded.  Species identifications were based on Maragos (1977).  
Visual estimates are more reproducible and more accurate than random-point 
sampling for this type of rapid assessment work (Dethier et al., 1993).
  At several stations (Honokoa, Kaukamoku, Papakaiki, and Waaiki), data 
on the size distribution of small colonies located on vertical faces at 
the base of the reef structure were collected.  At some sites, colony size 
was directly measured in bands 1 m by 0.5 m up from the bottom of the
reef.  At other sites, photographs of the quadrat frame were taken and 
subsequently analyzed.  Colony sizes were estimated using the 10 cm grid 
of the quadrat frame for scale.
  An index of relative water motion and potential for impacts from 
major storm conditions was developed using summarized data on typical 
current patterns, wind speed records and wave patterns (Environmental 
Impact Study Corp., 1979; University of Hawaii, Geography Department, 1983).

Data Analysis
  Coral community diversity was calculated using the modified (Loya, 1972) 
Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H?c = - ? pi ln pi) of the mean percent 
cover each species on the transect lines.  Similarity of communities from 
the 33 sites sampled was assessed using a modified Sorensen Similarity index, 
after transformation of the data (angular transformation of percent data 
and square root transformation of average counts):
        Iab = ? 2Ma (Ma + Mb)-1;
where Iab is the index for two sites (a and b) for each species 
(i = 1, 2, ...S); Ma is the lower cover or density for the ith species 
in the two site pair and Mb is the higher cover or density for that species.  
Cluster analysis was performed on the resulting matrix of similarity 
values using SAS procedures (SAS 1988).

#INSTRUMENT TYPES:

Sediments
1) PVC core samplers
2) USA Standard Testing Sieve: A.S.T.M.E.-11 specifications with opening
   diameters of 500 um and 63 um)

Corals/Fish:
SCUBA

#REFERENCES: 
Bischoff, W.D., F. Bishop, and F.T. Mackenzie. 1983. Biogenically produced
   magnesium  calcite in homogeneities in chemical and physical properties:
   Comparison with synthetic  phases.  Am. Mineral. 68: 1183-1188.

Cox, E.F., Jokiel, P.L. Te, F.T. and Stanton, F. 1993. Coral reefs of 
   Kahoolawe, Hawaii I: Community structure of corals and reef fish. 
   Final Report for the Cooperative agreement # NA 270M0327.

Dethier, M. N., E. S. Graham, S. Cohen, and L. M. Tear.  1993.  Visual 
   versus random-point percent cover estimations: 'objective' is not 
   always better.  Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 96:93-100.  

Jokiel, P.L.; Maragos, J.E. and Franzisket, L. 1978. Coral growth: 
   buoyant weight technique. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Johannes, R.E. 
   (eds.) Coral reefs: Research methods. UNESCO Monographs on
   Oceanographic Methodology. pp. 529-542.

Jokiel, P. L. and W. A. Tyler III.  1992.  Distribution of stony corals 
   in Johnston Atoll lagoon.  Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2:683-692.

Loya, Y.  1972.  Community structure and species diversity of hermatypic 
   corals at Eilat, Red Sea.  Mar.  Biol. 13:100-123.

Maragos, J. E. and P. L. Jokiel.  1986.  Reef corals of Johnston Atoll: 
   one of the world's most isolated reefs.  Coral Reefs 4:141-150.

Maragos, J. E.  1977.  Order Scleractinia.  In: D. M. Devaney and L. G. 
   Eldredge.  Reef and shore fauna of Hawaii. Section I: Protozoa through 
   Ctenophora.  B. P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 64.  Bishop 
   Museum Press, Honolulu, Hawaii.

McManus, J. 1988. Grain size determination  and  interpretation. 
   pp.  63-85. IN M. Tucker  ed., Techniques  in  Sedimentology. 
   Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford, England.

Morse, J.W. and F.T. Mackenzie. 1990. Geochemistry of Sedimentary 
   Carbonates. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam,  
   Netherlands. 707 pages.

Sabine, C.L.  1991.  Geochemistry  of  particulate  and  dissolved 
   inorganic carbon in the central north Pacific. Ph.D.  dissertation. 
   Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii.Honolulu, Hawaii.249 pages

SAS Institute Inc.  1988.  SAS/STAT Users Guide.  Release 6.03 edition.  
   SAS Institute, Cary, NC.  Sato, M. 1985. Mortality and Growth of 
   Juvenile Coral Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus). Coral Reefs 4: 27-33.

Te, F.T., 2000. Responses of Hawaiian Scleractinian corals to different
   levels of terrestrial and carbonate sediment. Ph.D.  dissertation.
   Department of Zoology, University of Hawaii.Honolulu, Hawaii.

#SUBMITTING MEDIUM:
email as MS WORD files

#FILE FORMATS: 
Files provided as MS WORD documents from references,
see above : 1) Te, F.T ,2000 and 2) Cox et. al., 1995.

Redundant copies of the MS WORD tables were placed
in directory data/txt.  Below, only the root name
without the extention is given.

List of files     Contents
Table1_2          Sites visited on Kahoolawe during 1993.  Data collected 
                  include quantitative coral (C) and fish (F) transects, bulk 
                  sediment samples from transects (B), beach profiles (P), 
                  and core sediment samples from transects perpendicular 
                  to the beach (S).
Table2_1          Grain size distribution of sediment samples from Kahoolawe.
                  Sediment fractions are categorized as silt (< 63 um); 
                  fine sand (>63 um but < 500 um) and coarse sand (> 500 um).  
                  NA indicates no data
Table2_2          Grain size analysis of core samples from Kahoolawe. Size 
                  fractions are categorized as silt (< 63 um); fine sand 
                  (> 63 um but < 500 um) and coarse sand (> 500 um). Numbers 
                  after site name indicate area of sampling with 1 nearest 
                  beach and 5 farthest away. Letters indicate two layers 
                  (subsurface and surface) of cores.
Table2_3          Mineralogy of Kahoolawe sediments using X-ray diffraction. X
                  indicates presence while (*) indicates trace amounts.
Table2_4          Possible sources of calcite found in Kahoolawe sediments 
                  using X-ray diffraction analysis based on  mole % Mg content.
Table2_5          Coral coverage (% of substratum), diversity, and number of 
                  species and fish diversity and species richness.  
Table2_7          Mean diameter of coral colonies at the bottom of reef 
                  structures at Honokoa, Kaukamoku, Papakaiki and Wa'aiki

#DATASET SIZE:
1550 Kbytes

#NUMBER OF DATA UNITS:
19 stations

#MISCELLANEOUS:

