CHAPTER 3 : SEDIMENT PROCESSES ON THE REEFS OF KAWAIHAE, 
HAWAII: A LONG-TERM STUDY IN A HIGH WAVE ENERGY ENVIRONMENT


Introduction

The studies of Kahoolawe (Chapter 2) provided insight into sediment 
dynamics as inferred from a single visit to each remote site.  The inaccessibility 
of Kahoolawe precluded regular monitoring of sediments.  A long-term study of 
sedimentation in a sheltered environment (Kaneohe Bay -Chapter 4) was 
designed to provide valuable information on sediment effects in a low wave 
energy system, but long-term investigations on sediment dynamics in high wave 
energy systems was clearly needed.  The opportunity to conduct such a study in 
an ideal location was provided by the initiation of a harbor expansion project at 
Kawaihae, Hawaii.  Studies were directed at the feasibility of using coral 
transplantation as a mitigation measure to offset loss of habitat caused by harbor 
construction.  Additional studies on the effects of sedimentation on transplanted 
corals at the various study sites were included as part of the overall experimental 
design.  Kawaihae has habitats ranging from an inshore area strongly influenced 
by stream discharge of terrigenous sediments to offshore sites that are relatively 
unaffected by sediment.     





Background
In 1994, the U.S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu completed planning for a harbor for light-
draft vessels at Kawaihae, in the South Kohala District of the island of Hawaii.  The project was initiated 
in the early 1960s, but not completed.  The entrance channel and turning basin were created with a series of 
large underground detonations in 1969 and 1970 during Operation Tugboat.  Completion of the harbor 
required extension of the existing breakwater and construction of a new mole and breakwater.  No 
additional dredging was required.  However, the planned construction covered about 1.8 hectares (4.5 
acres) of shallow reef habitat, some of which were occupied by corals and associated organisms.  The 
Army Corps of Engineers recommended that a coral transplantation and monitoring plan be developed as 
part of the project in order to evaluate the feasibility of this method as a tool to mitigate adverse impacts of 
harbor construction (U.S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu, 1994).  Some of the corals destined to be 
buried under the breakwaters would be moved to other locations.  Sedimentation is an important ecological 
dimension in this reef area, so sediment traps were set at each study plot and monitored along with 
mortality on a monthly basis.  

Description of the project area
	The existing small boat anchorage (Figure 3.1) is bounded by revetted landfill to the north, the 
existing breakwater to the west, a healthy coral reef to the south, and an eroded reef platform to the east.  
The turning basin apparently functions as a sediment sink, and is characterized by low-relief sand flat, 
relatively low wave energy, and sparse coral coverage dominated by delicate corals (Pocillopora 
damicornis and finely branching Montipora verrucosa).  The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1993) reports 
that reef fish diversity in the turning basin is high (64 species) but abundance is low.  A considerable 
topographic relief in the inshore portion characterizes the coral reef to the south.   There is a spur and 
groove system on the seaward edge of the reef.  The seaward portion of the southern reef supports the most 
diverse and well-developed coral community in the project site, with at least 11 species of coral.  Porites 
compressa is the dominant coral species, followed by Porites lobata.  Other species include Pavona 
varians, Leptastraea purpurea, Fungia scutaria, and Pocillopora meandrina.  The southern reef supports 
an abundant and diverse reef-fish community, with at least 68 species.  The inshore reef to the east and 
southeast of the project site consists of a low-relief limestone pavement dissected by numerous channels 
and sand pockets.  Coral coverage is low but reef-fish density is high, with at least 50 species present.  The 
reef is pitted from numerous boring sea urchins, Echinometra mathei.  Heterocentrotus mammillatus is also 
abundant.  Blasting to create the entrance channel pulverized part of the reef framework into rubble.  The 
channel area supports a depauperate reef-fish community (only 3 species recorded), low coral coverage and 
coral diversity.  Porites lobata is the most common coral species in this area; Porites compressa and 
Pocillopora meandrina are also found (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993).
	The Kawaihae project was designed to evaluate the use of transplant technique as a possible 
means of mitigating damage to Hawaiian coral reefs.  Corals within the footprint of the construction site 
were moved to other locations lacking in coral coverage.  Subsequently, we evaluated the success of the 
method, chiefly through monitoring survival of transplanted corals using visual censusing and photographic 
techniques.

Materials and Methods

Site descriptions
	Eight experimental transplant stations (named Harbor, Stockpile, Outer Reef Flat, 35 Ft., 45 Ft., 
Danger, Pelekane Offshore and Pelekane Inshore) were chosen to represent a full range of environmental 
conditions (Figure 3.1).  An offshore gradient was established with sites selected from shallow to deep 
water and in various environments, including areas believed to have a high potential for damage associated 
with harbor construction (particularly increased sedimentation), to distant sites with a low potential for 
direct damage, and areas that presumably would be impacted by storm surf.  Although the Kawaihae area is 
sheltered from northeast trade wind generated seas, it is subject to North Pacific swell in the winter months.  
Dollar (1982) defines the summer south swell as normal for the leeward coast of the Island of Hawaii.  
Kawaihae, however, is located within an indentation along this coast and is not impacted by 
southerly swell (Peter Hendricks, personal communication).  The configuration of the coastline is such that 
only waves coming from a bearing of 235? to 305? (measured clockwise in degrees from true North) will 
directly impact the site.  North Pacific swell events are intermediate in frequency.  A northwest swell with 
wave heights of 3 - 4 m has a predicted return period of approximately 4 years.  In the event of severe 
storm surf, we predicted physical damage at most of the shallow transplant sites.  We included areas 
presumed to have high terrigenous sediment loads (Harbor Station, Pelekane Offshore Station, Pelekane 
Inshore Station) and a site with high macroalgal coverage (Danger Station).  Both wave action and 
terrigenous sediment loading will affect corals.  All experimental grids were placed on hard substrata (solid 
substratum or coarse coral rubble substratum).  We selected areas with corals adjacent to areas having low 
or moderate coral coverage.  Adjacent natural areas were marked as control sites.
Harbor Station is the closest inshore and is in shallow water (3 m depth) and partially protected 
from high wave energy by the existing breakwater.  This site has a high potential for disturbance during 
construction activities, particularly from increased sedimentation.  Changes in water flow following 
construction of the breakwaters may also impact coral communities in this area.  The site is 
characterized by soft substratum (fine terrestrial muds); low coral coverage and corals associated with 
low wave energy environments (Pocillopora damicornis and fine-branching Montipora verrucosa).
Stockpile Station is in slightly deeper water (4.5 m depth) along the edge of the existing harbor 
entrance channel.  Given its proximity to the new construction, this site may also be disturbed during 
construction.  The site is characterized by hard substratum and low coral coverage.  Porites lobata is the 
dominant species.  The name Stockpile was chosen as corals removed from the footprint of the 
breakwaters were held in this area for future movement to other sites.
Outer Reef Flat Station (3 m depth) is located on hard substratum surrounded by moderate coral 
coverage, particularly well-cemented colonies of Porites lobata, suggesting that wave energy is high in 
this area.
35 Ft. Station and 45 Ft. Station were chosen because they probably would not be impacted by 
direct impacts of construction activities as they are located offshore in deeper water (11 m and 14 m).  
These sites are located on sand channels bounded by ridges and mounds of hard substratum with high 
coral coverage.  Within these sand channels, sand movement was believed to be a hazard for the 
experimental grids, as wave-driven sand can abrade corals or bury them completely.  Stakes were 
placed in the sandy areas to monitor sand movement.  Distance from the tip of the stake to the sand was 
measured every sampling period.  
Danger Station (1.5 m depth) is located on hard substratum surrounded by areas of very low coral 
coverage and high macro algal coverage.  The most noticeable feature of the area is extensive 
bioerosion associated with urchin boring.  Numerous green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were observed 
feeding in the area.  
Pelekane Offshore Station (1.5 m depth) is located near slightly deeper areas with high coral 
coverage, but has no live corals.  The area has hard substratum covered with crustose calcareous algae.  
Wave damage was considered to be possible at this site.
Pelekane Inshore Station (1.5 m depth) was presumed to be subjected to high sedimentation 
from terrestrial sources.  Low coral coverage areas occur near this station.  It is near the mouth of an 
intermittent stream draining a watershed of approximately 5,000 hectares.  The site is located on hard 
substratum at the edge of a channel once used to enter the protected water behind the coral reef before 
construction of the existing commercial harbor.


Large-scale transplant method
	Divers first placed 1 m x 1 m squares of chicken wire (5 cm mesh) on the substrate adjacent to the 
collection site.  A float was tied on one end of a 25 m line and a large spring clip tied to the opposite end.  
The line was clipped onto to one corner of the chicken wire mesh, serving as a visual marker for the divers.  
This line was used later to haul the corals off the bottom.   Divers then moved corals and placed them on 
the chicken wire.  Most corals were loosely attached to the substratum or rested on unconsolidated material 
and were easily moved.  Occasionally, a sledge hammer was used to loosen corals that were too large or 
firmly attached.  When the chicken wire was amply covered with coral, divers secured the four corners with 
the clip, forming a sling. The divers then returned to the boat and completed the operation with no 
personnel in the water. 
	When all personnel were safely out of the water, the boat engines were started and the boat 
maneuvered alongside of the floats.  The float was retrieved, and the two or more persons hauled the bags 
off the bottom.  The bags were hoisted close to the surface, and the lines were tied off on cleats.  Generally 
four bags of corals were carried on each boat trip.   The boat slowly transported the corals to the transplant 
sites.  Bags were lowered to the bottom, and the floats thrown clear of the boat, after which time the boat 
was anchored and secured.  Divers then entered the water to set up the transplant stations.  Corals remained 
fully immersed in water throughout the operation.  
	All of the corals moved in this operation were massive colonies typical of high water motion 
environments.  These corals can be handled with little or no breakage.  Much more care would have been 
required if we were transplanting delicate species.

Establishment of the eight transplant plots
	The position of each transplant site was established using sightings on prominent land features.  At 
each experimental site, a 2.5 m x 2.5 m square of wire mesh was firmly attached to the bottom using stakes 
cut from steel reinforcing rod and large nails.  Corals were then placed and secured to the grid with wire.  
Four sediment traps were attached to stakes at each site.  Photographs and video were taken and used to 
compile detailed maps of the corals located at each transplant site.  These maps were subsequently used by 
divers to monitor survivorship of corals.
	A total of 47 bags of coral were moved.  Bags are estimated to weigh between 45 and 70 kg 
buoyant weight.  Taking an average of 58 kg, an estimated 2,700 kg buoyant weight was moved.  The ratio 
between buoyant weight and wet weight for Porites compressa, one of the dominant species in the area, 
was calculated to be 2.76 (Figure 3.2).  Thus approximately 7,500 kg (16,000 lbs) wet weight was moved.
	The University of Hawaii project team spent 3 person days selecting sites, 3 person days moving 
corals, 6 person days establishing experimental sites and 7 person days monitoring, photographing and 
mapping sites (1 person day = 8 hours of work).  Additional time was spent on planning, explaining 
methods to volunteers, buying supplies, maintaining the HIMB boat and traveling to the project area and 
sites.  A total of 43 person days were spent.

Monitoring of transplant plots
	At approximately monthly intervals (depending on weather and surf conditions) the plots were 
visually sampled for condition of corals.  Depth of sediments at the 35 Ft. and 45 Ft. sites was measured 
using permanent stakes.  Sediment traps were replaced and the contents analyzed.

Sediment Sampling
	Polyvinylchloride plastic (PVC) cylindrical pipes, interior diameter 5.2 cm, were used as sediment 
traps.  The recommended diameter to length ratio of 1:3 (Gardner 1980a, b) was used.  Four traps were 
deployed at each site, with one placed on each corner of the 2.5 x 2.5 m wire grid, with the mouth of the 
traps held 30 cm above the substrate with plastic stands.  Trap contents were collected at roughly monthly 
intervals by capping the open tops of the traps and bringing the unit to the surface.  Sediments were 
collected on pre-weighed filters and air dried to a constant weight.  
	Bulk samples, characteristic of the benthic substratum, were collected at each site in November 
1996.  Scoop samples of approximately 50 g were collected from the top 10 cm of the substratum at each 
site.

Sediment Analyses
Grain Size Analysis
     Samples were homogenized and wet filtered through a large mesh sieve (2.8 mm) to remove small 
rocks.  The remaining material was wet filtered through sieves representing gravel (>500 ?m), coarse sands 
(between 500 and 250 ?m), fine sands (between 250 and 63 ?m), and silt (<63 ?m) (McManus, 1988).  
Sieved materials were collected on pre-weighed filters and dried to a constant weight.  The proportion of 
material in each size class was determined.

Organic and Carbonate Fraction
     Samples were dried and homogenized.  Sub samples of approximately 10 g were dried at 60?C for 8 
hours, and then ashed at 500?C for 12 hours.  Organic fraction is expressed as Loss on Ignition (LOI).  The 
samples where then ashed at 1000?C for 4 hours to break down the carbonate (Parker, 1983; Craft et al., 
1991).

Sediment Mobility 
	Depth of the sediments at the 35 Ft. and 45 Ft. sites were measured monthly using permanent 
stakes.  Two stakes were installed at each site:  one close to the existing hard coral substratum and one 
centrally located within the sand channel.

Waves at Kawaihae
     	Waves impacting Kawaihae during the initial one-year period of monitoring for coral mortality 
and sedimentation was estimated using wave height and wave direction data recorded continually by 
oceanographic buoy 51026, located north of the island of Molokai (NW of Kawaihae).  Data were 
downloaded from a web site maintained by the National Ocean Data Center (NODC).  A complete 
description of the data buoys system and guidelines for interpretation of the data is available from the 
NODC (Earle, 1990) or can be downloaded from their web site.  The Molokai buoy was located in the open 
ocean and measured waves from all directions.  Kawaihae is positioned on the west coast of the Island of 
Hawaii and is directly impacted only by waves coming from the northwest (235? to 305? measured 
clockwise from true north).  Therefore, the data from the Molokai buoy was first filtered to exclude waves 
from other directions.  The Molokai buoy was in an excellent position to accurately record waves coming 
from the NW sector.  Wave data from this buoy is reported as significant wave height (HH) measured in 
meters (m).  This value is the average height of the one-third highest waves during the measurement time 
period (20 minutes for NDBC).  This is also the approximate height that a trained observer would report 
when making visual wave observations (Earle, 1990).  From a management viewpoint, this measurement 
has the most value because the highest waves are responsible for most of the damage sustained along 
coastlines.

Coral Transplantation - Second series
	During the initial four months of the initial transplantation, four sites showed low coral mortality:  
Harbor, Pelekane Inshore, Pelekane Offshore, and Danger.  Three were selected for the second series of 
transplantation (the Harbor site was not chosen due to the nature of the substratum and the continued 
construction activities).  Colonies of Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina and Montipora verrucosa were 
collected from the area to be covered by on-going construction.  These colonies were wedged into cracks in 
the substratum adjacent to the plots established during the initial transplantation.  This method is a more 
efficient method because we did not have to spend time and materials setting up a wire grid and spent no 
time fastening a grid or corals to the bottom.  A total of 152 colonies were transplanted.  To facilitate 
relocating these colonies, they were tagged with thin wire.  These transplants were monitored for mortality 
during the subsequent monthly and quarterly sampling of the initial transplants.

Results

Monitoring of Coral Transplants
Mortality
	Initial survivorship of the transplanted coral colonies at all stations was 
100% (Figure 3.3a, b) for the first four months following transplantation.  Hence 
we conclude that transplantation, by itself, was not a significant cause of 
mortality.  However, we noticed that there was two patterns of mortality following 
the initial transplant procedure: acute and chronic.  At the five stations furthest 
offshore (Figure 3.3a), there has high mortality following winter storms with high 
wave energy (Figure 3.4).  This is an acute form of coral reef disturbance.  At the 
Outer Reef Flat station, 100% of the colonies died (all were broken from the 
station grid and considerably abraded) following storms in late December and 
early January.  At this station, the storm surf scoured and removed all rubble to a 
depth of 30 cm.  Corals in the adjacent control area were strongly cemented to 
the hard reef framework and survived these wave events.  However, corals of 1 
to 3 m diameter that were located in areas of rubble were overturned by these 
storms.  In January 1996, loss of corals was 50% or more at the Stockpile 
Station, 35 Ft. Station and 45 Ft. Station.  Loss at the two deepest stations was 
due to burial by the moving sediments.  It was clear that turbulent effects of water 
motion near the base of existing coral reef structures protected nearby 
transplanted colonies from burial, but colonies placed further away from the 
existing reef structures were buried by moving sediments.  Mortality at the most 
inshore of these stations, Harbor, occurred later, following storms in February 
and March.  
	At the other three stations, Pelekane Inshore Station, Pelekane Offshore Station and Danger 
Station, there was little mortality following the winter storms (Figure 3.3b).  All stations have shown a 
relatively slow decline in coral survivorship in 1996 and 1997, representing the second type of mortality 
due to various chronic disturbances at these sites.

Sediment
Sediment Deposits at Each Station
	Bulk samples at all stations were somewhat similar to each other.  All stations except Pelekane 
Inshore, had primarily gravel and sands (Table 3.3).  Gravel was predominant in the samples from the 
shallow stations, Pelekane Offshore, Outer Reef Flat, Stockpile and Danger, and at the 35 Ft. stations.  The 
45 Ft. station was characterized by coarse and fine sands, and the Harbor station had primarily fine sands.  
These materials are less likely to be resuspended except at very high water motion.   Pelekane Inshore had a 
higher silt fraction than the other stations.

Sediment Loading
Seasonal changes in quality and quantity
	The pattern of sediment capture by the sediment traps mirrors the pattern in wave energy recorded 
at these sites  (Figure 3.5).  Sediment traps showed higher rates of accumulation during the winter months 
associated with wave events.  Extremely high rates (over 500 mg cm-2 day-1) were recorded at the 35 Ft. 
and 45 Ft. stations following the winter storms.  These values are conservative in that during the major 
storm wave event the traps were buried, so the values represent undertrapping.  
In contrast, during the calm summer months these two stations have very low rates of 
sedimentation, as low as 2 mg cm-2 day-1.  A seasonal change in quantity was evident at all stations, 
mirroring the pattern in wave energy.  However, the magnitude of the increase during the winter months 
was low for stations Pelekane Inshore, Pelekane Offshore, and Danger, with maximum sedimentation rates 
at Pelekane Inshore and Pelekane Offshore being approximately 100 mg cm-2 day-1.  
	During the winter months, sediments collected in the traps had a higher percentage of fine or 
coarse sands, while during the summer months; silts were more prevalent in the trapped material (Table 
3.1, Figure 3.6a, b).  Although the total amount of material collected during the summer months was lower 
than capture rates during the winter, the summer material had a higher organic content (LOI) than material 
collected during the winter months (Figure 3.7).  

Spatial differences in quality and quantity
	There were differences among the stations in trapped sediment composition that does not mirror 
the composition of bulk sediment samples at each station.  Material in the traps largely represents the 
resuspended fraction of the surrounding sediments.  Larger waves will resuspend coarser materials.  In 
general, sediment trap materials at the lower wave energy sites (Pelekane Inshore, Pelekane Offshore and 
Danger stations) tended to be higher in fine sand and silt grain size fractions, while the stations with higher 
wave energy tended to have more coarse materials.  This pattern did not hold for the Harbor and Stockpile 
stations because these stations were located in areas of fine sediment deposits and tended to collect more 
fine sand and silt materials (Table 3.1).   

Sediment mobility
	The winter storm events partially buried the sediment stakes deployed in the sand channels at the 
35 Ft. and 45 Ft. Stations (Figure 3.8a).  Sediments gradually were removed from the stakes, until the mean 
wave energy began to increase again in late September 1996 and sediments again built up around the 
stakes.  This pattern was also evident at the stakes located closer to the corals (Figure 3.8b), although 
sediments were generally lower than at the stakes in the central portion of the sand channels.

Coral Transplantation - second phase
	Colonies were again transplanted on 17 April 1996.  There was no mortality associated with this 
second transplantation activity, as the first monitoring census showed 100% survivorship after one week 
(Table 3.2).  Subsequently, transplanted colonies had shown good health for up to 100 days.   A few 
months following transplantation, some colonies began to show gradual decline in health and were being 
overgrown by filamentous algae, and by November 1996 colonies were beginning to die (Table 3.2).  
Bleaching occurred in colonies of Pocillopora meandrina and Montipora verrucosa, however most of these 
colonies recovered following the high temperatures of the late summer.  Most of the corals that died were 
colonies of Porites lobata.

Discussion

Sedimentation and transplanted corals     
Use of sediment traps at Kawaihae provided data that demonstrate the importance of wave energy 
in the process of sediment resuspension and transport in open coastal environments.  We can state that 
sedimentation rates measured in this area may constitute only the trapping rate for the traps used in this 
study since the amount of sediment collected per trap is dependent on weather conditions. Current thinking 
states that higher sedimentation and turbidity levels contribute to the mortality of corals (Rogers 1990).  In 
Kawaihae, on the other hand, we should point out that sediment loading into the transplant sites was very 
high (> 100 gm cm-2 d-1) but coral mortality was low for the first 100 days indicating that sedimentation 
alone was NOT the key factor in affecting coral survival in the area.  A number of other processes may also 
be involved. 
Mortality over time was caused by acute processes (due to storm wave damage, removal or burial) and 
chronic processes (possibly due to algae overgrowth, fish grazing, abrasion damage from rubble and sand, 
high temperature or salinity changes resulting in bleaching, etc.).  Sedimentation process in this high wave 
energy environment contrasted greatly with processes occurring in Kaneohe Bay (Chapter 4). We will 
discuss this in more detail in the following chapters.


Sedimentation at Kawaihae
  	This study demonstrates the importance of waves on resuspension of materials from the 
substratum, elevating the measured sedimentation rates.  During periods of high wave energy, the grain size 
of sediments captured by the sediment traps increases, further demonstrating the ability of these high 
energy waves to pick up and transport the larger grain sizes from the benthic sediments.  During calm 
periods, the smaller grain sizes predominate, as wave energy is insufficient to resuspend the larger grain 
sizes.
	Except for the Pelekane Inshore station, these sites are low in silt grain sizes, as would be expected 
in areas not subjected to high amounts of terrigenous inputs.  Pelekane Inshore receives input from Luahine 
Gulch, and silty materials are clearly derived from this source as shown by high organic content (Figure 
3.7).  Sedimentation from terrigenous sources represents a chronic disturbance to coral reef areas.  If fine 
sediments are not removed by water motion, the build up silt can be detrimental to coral health (Brown and 
Howard, 1985; Rogers 1990).


Wave damage
	Infrequent wave events (intervals of 10 years or more) have major impacts on the structure of 
coral reefs (Woodley et al., 1982, Dollar, 1982, Done and Potts, 1992, Witman, 1992).  These events can 
dislodge, bury, abrade or break corals and change the diversity and composition of the coral community.  
Long periods of time between events allow for growth and succession in the coral community, which then 
appears to suffer major damage following a natural disturbance, such as a large storm.
	Wave damage represents an acute disturbance for the reefs at Kawaihae.  In hindsight, it was 
fortuitous that this study was initiated during a year of extreme NW swell.  These wave events were 
probably the worst at Kawaihae in over a decade (Peter Hendricks, pers. com.).  Had this study not been 
conducted during this major event, conclusions would have been radically different.  Corals in exposed 
sites (particularly the Outer Reef Flat Station, 35 Ft. Station and 45 Ft. Stations) might not have shown such 
high mortality.  The damage suffered by the transplanted corals was much greater than suffered by 
naturally occurring corals.  Although some naturally occurring corals were abraded or overturned, mortality 
at the Outer Reef Flat station to transplanted colonies was 100%.  These corals were not sufficiently 
cemented to a hard substratum to protect them from the impact of these waves.  In fact, the waves removed 
the 4 ft. X 4 ft wire mesh that secured the corals as well as the coarse rubble substratum under the 
transplant station to a depth of about 5 to 30 cm.  Waves actually gouged out the area of the transplants.  
Likewise at the 35 Ft. and 45 Ft. stations no coral mortality was noted on the adjacent coral communities on 
reef outcrops.


Success of Transplantation Methods
	Transplantation of corals was highly successful, with no mortality associated with the 
transplantation process itself.  This result has been demonstrated previously by other researchers (see 
review by Harriot and Fisk, 1988, and recent transplantation projects, Bowden-Kerby, 1997; Clark, 1997; 
Munoz-Chagin, 1997; Oren and Benayahu, 1997).  Most researchers stress that moving corals under water 
and securing transplants to the substrate are important factors determining transplantation success.  Initial 
mortality is low if factors that stress corals are minimized and transplanted corals are secured to the 
substratum.  In addition, corals should be collected from areas of similar environmental factors, especially 
degree of sedimentation and water motion. 
	Reef corals can be transplanted efficiently and without mortality on a large scale using techniques 
developed during this investigation.  One problem with previous transplantation studies has been the use of 
small fragments.  These tend to have a high rate of natural mortality apart from the mortality associated 
with the transplantation itself.  This study involved moving entire colonies or large fragments of colonies.  
Colonies were transported under water and fastened to the bottom, either tied to a wire grid or wedged into 
natural crevices.  Methods involving gluing fragments to large blocks are much more expensive and time-
consuming, although similar results with respect to initial survival can be attained.  Transplantation of coral 
cores, although successful, is also a time-consuming technique (Vago and Turak, 1995).

Summary

? High sediment loading rates in many areas did not affect survival of transplanted corals in the field.
? The effects of large waves was more detrimental to transplanted and naturally growing corals than 
higher sediment loading rates
? Sediment trapping rates in certain areas does not represent actual sediment accumulation since strong 
water motion causes resuspension and winnowing out of sediments to deeper areas.



  This investigation was conducted in collaboration with Paul Jokiel, Evelyn Cox and Darby Irons. Results 
are also discussed in the Final Report entitled: Mitigation of Reef Damage at Kawaihae Harbor Through 
Transplantation of Reef Corals.
