COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF FISH AND MACROBENTHOS
AT SELECTED SITES FRONTING SAND ISLAND, OAHU, HAWAII,
IN RELATION TO THE SAND ISLAND OCEAN OUTFALL,
YEAR 51994





Richard E. Brock






Project Report PR-95-08








January 1995







PREPARED FOR
City and County of Honolulu
Department of Wastewater Management
Project Report
for
The Assessment of the Impact of Ocean Outfalls
on the Marine Environment off Oahu, Hawaii
Project No.:  C59390
Project Period:  21 February 199031 December 1994
Principal Investigator:  Roger S. Fujioka


WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER
University of Hawaii at Mo(,a)noa
Honolulu, Hawaii  96822

ABSTRACT
This report provides the results of the fifth year of an annual quantitative 
monitoring (carried out on 20 September and 1314 October 1994) of shallow marine 
communities inshore of the Sand Island Ocean Outfall, Oahu, Hawaii. This monitoring 
effort focuses on benthic and fish community structure and is designed to detect changes 
in these communities. Marine communities offshore of Honolulu have received 
considerable perturbation over the last 100 years. Dumping of raw sewage in shallow 
water, which occurred from 1955 to 1977, was halted in 1978; however, point and 
nonpoint sources of pollution from both urban activities and industry continue. All of 
these disturbances may serve to obscure any impacts that may be caused by treated 
effluent discharge from the deep ocean outfall. The marine communities show a 
considerable range in development that is probably related to historical impacts. Stations 
have been located to take advantage of these gradients. Analysis of the five years of data 
showed that there has been no statistically significant change in the following biological 
measures: percent coral cover, number of invertebrate species, total number of 
invertebrates counted, number of fish species, total number of fishes counted, and the 
biomass of fishes present at each station. The mean number of coral species has shown a 
statistically significant increase over the five-year period. Hurricane Iniki, which 
occurred in September 1992, impacted marine communities along the south shore of 
Oahu. Coral communities received considerable damage, especially at the westernmost 
study station. Recovery in these communities is evident from the two years of data 
collected since the storm. Thus far, this study has not detected a quantifiable negative 
impact from the operation of the Sand Island Ocean Outfall.

INTRODUCTION
Purpose
In recent years controversy has arisen regarding the impact that sewage effluent 
from the Sand Island Wastewater Treatment Plant may have on inshore coral reef species. 
Much of the geographical area of concern in this study was impacted by the release of 62 
mgd (3 m3/s) of raw sewage in 10 m of water off Sand Island from 1955 to 1977. Starting 
in 1978 sewage received advanced primary treatment and was released farther offshore of 
Sand Island from a deep ocean outfall (67 to 73 m depth). Despite studies that 
demonstrated the recovery of inshore benthic communities once the shallow sewage 
stress was removed (e.g., Dollar 1979), concern continues over the possible impact that 
the release of sewage from the deep ocean outfall may be having on the shallow (<20 m 
depth) marine communities fronting Honolulu and Sand Island. Accordingly, beginning 
in 1990, this study was undertaken in an attempt to quantitatively ascertain the impacts 
that may be occurring. This document presents the results of the fifth annual survey 
carried out in September and October 1994.
Strategy
Marine environmental surveys are usually performed to evaluate feasibility of and 
ecosystem response to specific proposed activities. Appropriate survey methodologies 
reflect the nature of the proposed action(s). An action that may have an acute impact 
(such as channel dredging) requires a survey designed to determine the route of least 
harm and the projected rate and degree of ecosystem recovery. Impacts that are more 
chronic or progressive require different strategies for measurement. Management of 
chronic stress to a marine ecosystem requires identification of system perturbations that 
exceed boundaries of natural fluctuations. Thus a thorough understanding of normal 
ecosystem variability is required to separate the impact signal from background noise. 
Infrequent natural events may add considerably to the variability or background noise 
measured in a marine community. In September 1992 Hurricane Iniki struck the 
Hawaiian islands and impacted some marine communities along Oahus south shore. 
This rare event has provided this study with information on the magnitude of such natural 
impacts.
Rare storm events not withstanding, the potential impacts occurring to the marine 
ecosystem offshore of Sand Island and Honolulu are most probably those associated with 
chronic or progressive stresses. Because of the proximity of the population center and 
industry, marine communities fronting Honolulu are subjected to a wide array of impacts 
not usually occurring in other Hawaiian coral communities. Thus a sampling strategy 
must attempt to separate impacts due to wastewater treatment plant effluent on coral reef 
communities located at some distance shoreward from a host of other perturbations 
occurring in the waters fronting Honolulu.
Honolulu Harbor has been the primary commercial port for the State of Hawaii 
since before the turn of the century (Scott 1968). The harbor is the result of dredging 
what was originally the drainage basin of Nuuanu Stream. Dredging began before 1900, 
and periodic maintenance dredging still occurs. Until about 1960 spoils were dropped just 
outside of the harbor, generally to the east of the Sand Island Ocean Outfall. Besides 
shipping, the harbor is ringed with industry; pineapple canneries, gas and oil storage and 
numerous other businesses have operated or are still operating here. Storm drainage into 
the harbor and nearby Keehi Lagoon carries runoff from Honolulus streets and suburbs 
into the ocean. Pollution is well known in the harbor; conditions are described as early as 
1920 in references cited by Cox and Gordon (1970). Sewage has been pumped into the 
ocean offshore of Kewalo and Sand Island since the 1930s. The early inputs were all raw 
sewage released in water not exceeding 20 m in depth. The actual point of release varied 
through time as different pipes were constructed and used. The multitude of perturbations 
that occurred in shallow water (<20 m) until the construction of the present deep water 
outfall in 1978 may serve to obscure the impacts from the present discharge.
The waters fronting Sand Island, into which the deep ocean outfall discharges, may 
be considered in terms of gradients. There are numerous gradients owing to point (such 
as storm drains and streams) and nonpoint inputs into Honolulu Harbor and the 
surrounding area from the above-mentioned activities. Because many of these inputs have 
been occurring for a considerable period of time, the species composition and functional 
relationships of the benthic and fish communities at any given location in the waters 
offshore of Honolulu and the harbor are those that have evolved under the influence of 
these ongoing perturbations.
As noted above, if impacts are occurring in the shallow marine communities 
fronting Honolulu owing to the deep ocean outfall, these are probably chronic in nature, 
thus causing a slow decline in the communities so affected. Gradients of stress or 
impact should be evident with distance from impact source(s). Thus, to quantitatively 
define these impacts, one should monitor these communities through time in areas 
suspected of being impacted as well as in similar communities at varying distances away 
from the suspected source(s). This rationale has been used in developing the sampling 
strategy for this study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The quantitative sampling of macrofauna of marine communities presents a number 
of problems; many of these are related to the scale on which one wishes to quantitatively 
enumerate organism abundance. Marine communities in the waters fronting Sand Island 
may be spatially defined in a range on the order of a few hundred square centimeters 
(such as the community living in a Pocillopora meandrina coral head) to many hectares 
(such as areas which are covered by major biotopes). Because considerable interest 
focuses on visually dominant corals, diurnally exposed macroinvertebrates, and fishes, 
we designed a sampling program to delineate changes that may be occurring in 
communities at this scale.
Three stations were selected for the monitoring of benthic and fish community 
response to possible sewage impacts. The approximate locations of these sites are shown 
in Figure 1. The stations are close to some stations previously used by Dollar (1979). The 
stations and the rationale for their selection are given below:
Station A 
(Kewalo Landfill) 
Utilized as a control area. This station lies east of the present deep 
ocean outfall in 17 to 18.2 m of water. Prevailing currents create a 
westerly movement of sewage effluent (Dollar 1979), thus the shallow 
Kewalo Landfill area is probably not directly impacted. At this 
location, corals occur in areas of emergent limestone. Local coverage 
over short linear distances may exceed 30%. This station is in the 
vicinity of Dollars (1979) station 2.
Station B 
(Kalihi Entrance Channel)
Located about 120 m east of the Kalihi Entrance Channel in 
approximately 15 m of water. This station is about 900 m west  of the 
bypass (old) outfall in an area heavily impacted by the old (1955 to 
1977) shallow-water discharge and is very close to Dollars (1979) 
station 14. There is emergent limestone at this station, but coral 
coverage is low (<1%).
Station C 
(Reef Runway)
Located in an area of complex limestone substratum in water ranging 
from 7.5 to 12 m in depth fronting Honolulu International Airports 
Reef Runway. This station location is close to Brocks (1986) station 
that was monitored quarterly in 197778 (AECOS, Inc. 1979) and 
again in 1986. It is close to Dollars (1979) station 19. This station was 
moderately impacted by the old shallow-water sewage outfall (Dollar 
1979).
At each station two transect lines were permanently established using metal stakes 
and plastic-coated no. 14 copper wire. The transects are 20 m in length and have an 
orientation that is perpendicular to shore. Two transects were established at each location 
to provide some replication. Both sample approximately the same benthic communities. 
On each transect are five permanently marked locations (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 m) for the 
taking of photographs of the benthic communities. Cover estimates were also made in the 
field with a 1 m ? 1 m quadrat placed at the -1 to 0 m, 4 to 5 m, 9 to 10 m, 14 to 15 m 
and 19 to 20 m marks on the transect line in each survey.
Fish abundance and diversity are often related to small-scale topographical relief 
over short linear distances. A long transect may bisect a number of topographical features 
(e.g., coral mounds, sand flats, and algal beds), thus sampling more than one community 
and obscuring distinctive features of individual communities. To alleviate this problem, a 
short transect (20 m in length) has proved to be adequate for sampling many Hawaiian 
benthic communities (see Brock 1982; Brock and Norris 1989).
Information collected at each transect location using methods including a visual 
assessment of fishes, benthic quadrats for cover estimates of sessile forms (e.g., algae, 
corals and colonial invertebrates), and counts along the transect line for diurnally exposed 
motile macroinvertebrates. Fish censuses are conducted over a 20 m ? 4 m corridor (the 
permanent transect line). All fishes within this area to the waters surface are counted. A 
single diver equipped with scuba, slate, and pencil enters the water, then counts and notes 
all fishes in the prescribed area (method modified from Brock 1954). Besides counting 
the numbers of individuals of all fishes seen, the length of each is estimated for later use 
in the estimation of fish standing crop by linear regression techniques (Ricker 1975). 
Species-specific regression coefficients have been developed over the last 30 years by the 
author and others at the University of Hawaii, Naval Undersea Center (see Evans 1974), 
and the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources weight and body measurements of 
captured fishes; for many species the coefficients have been developed using sample 
sizes in excess of a hundred individuals. For the 1990 survey two weeks were allowed to 
elapse from the time of station selection and marking to the time of the first fish census to 
reduce the bias caused by wary fishes. The same individual (the author) performs all fish 
censuses to reduce bias.
Besides frightening wary fishes, other problems with the visual census technique 
include the underestimation of cryptic species such as moray eels (family Muraenidae) 
and nocturnal species such as squirrelfishes (family Holocentridae) and bigeyes or 
aweoweo (family Priacanthidae). This problem is compounded in areas of high relief and 
coral coverage that affords numerous shelter sites. Species lists and abundance estimates 
are more accurate for areas of low relief, although some fishes with cryptic habits or 
protective coloration, such as scorpionfishes or nohu (family Scorpaenidae) and flatfishes 
(family Bothidae), might still be missed. Another problem is the reduced effectiveness of 
the visual census technique is reduced in turbid water. This is compounded by the 
difficulty of counting fishes that move quickly or are very numerous. Additionally, bias 
related to the experience of the census taker should be considered in making comparisons 
between surveys. Despite these problems, the visual census technique is probably the 
most accurate, nondestructive assessment method currently available for counting 
diurnally active fishes (Brock 1982).
A number of methods are utilized to quantitatively assess benthic communities at 
each station, including the taking of photographs at locations marked for repeated 
sampling through time (each covering 0.67 m2) and 1 m ? 1 m quadrats placed at marked 
locations for repeated measurements. The photographs and quadrats are both used to 
estimate coverage of corals and other sessile forms. Photographs, which provide a 
permanent record from which to estimate coverage, were used in the four most recent 
surveys (1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994); the 1 m ? 1 m quadrats were used for an in-the-
field appraisal of coverage in all surveys. Cover estimates from photographs and quadrats 
are all recorded as percent cover. Diurnally exposed motile macroinvertebrates greater 
than 2 cm in some dimension are censused in the same 4 m ? 20 m corridor used for the 
fish counts. 
If macrothalloid algae were encountered in the 1 m ? 1 m quadrats or photographs, 
they were quantitatively recorded as percent cover. Emphasis was placed on those species 
that were visually dominant, and no attempt was made to quantitatively assess the 
multitude of microalgal species that constitute the algal turf so characteristic of many 
coral reef habitats.
As requested by permit agencies, divers made simple physical measurements at the 
three stations while in the field. Measurements of percent oxygen concentration and 
temperature were made with a YSI Model 57 Oxygen meter, salinity was taken with a 
hand-held refractometer, and water clarity was determined using a 12-inch secchi disk.
Data were subjected to simple nonparametric statistical procedures provided in the 
SAS Institute statistical package (SAS Institute 1985). Nonparametric methods were used 
to avoid meeting requirements of normal distribution and homogeneity of variance in the 
data. Data were analyzed using the KruskalWallis one-way analysis of variance to 
discern statistically significant differences among ranked means for each transect site and 
sample period; this procedure is outlined by Siegel (1956) and Sokal and Rohlf (1981). 
The a posteriori StudentNewmanKeuls multiple-range test (SAS Institute, Inc. 1985) 
was also used to elucidate differences between locations.
During fieldwork, an effort was made to note the presence of any green sea turtles 
(a threatened species) within or near the study sites.
RESULTS
Field sampling was first undertaken on 2729 December 1990. Station locations 
were selected and marked in November 1990. The permanent pins were deployed about a 
week later. Figure 1 shows the approximate locations of the three stations, each with a 
pair of transects. Figures 2, 3, and 4 are sketches showing the orientation of the 
permanent photographic quadrats on each transect line. Data were collected from the 
same locations as follows: 1991 data on 56 December 1991, 1992 data on 2122 
December 1992 and 25 January 1993, 1993 data on 78 September 1993, and 1994 data 
on 20 September and 1314 October 1994.
Malfunction of a new Nikonos V camera caused the loss of all photographic quadrat 
data for all stations in the first (1990) field effort. Subsequently, the annual photography 
effort has been carried out by members of the Oceanographic Team, Department of 
Wastewater Management, City and County of Honolulu. However, the 1990 visually 
assessed square-meter-quadrat data provided information on benthic coverage in this first 
annual effort. Subsequent surveys have used both photographic and quadrat methods to 
assess the benthic communities. It should be noted that the numbering of photo quadrats 
has changed since the 1991 survey, but the locations have remained the same.
The results are presented below by station.
Station A  Kewalo Landfill 
This station is located 600 m offshore of the old Kewalo Landfill in water ranging 
from 17 to 18 m in depth on a substratum dominated by limestone with moderate coral 
community development. The two transects are 35 m apart, out of visual range of one 
another (see 
Figure 2). Water clarity at this station usually ranges from 15 to 20 m.
A summary of the data collected at Transect T-1 in September 1994 is presented in 
Table 1. In the quadrat survey, six coral species having a mean estimated coverage of 
26.2% were encountered; the dominant species were Porites lobata and Pocillopora 
meandrina. Five algal species (Desmia hornemannii, Amansia glomerata, Liagora 
maxima, Sphacelaria furcigera, and Enteromorpha sp.) having a mean coverage of 1.1% 
were noted in the quadrats. The macroinvertebrate census noted two polychaetes (the 
Christmas tree worm Spirobranchus giganteus corniculatus and the featherduster worm 
Sabellastarte sanctijosephi), the boring bivalve Lithophaga sp., three sea urchin species 
(the long-spined sea urchin [or wana] Echinothrix diadema, the black urchin Tripneustes 
gratilla, and the green sea urchin Echinometra mathaei), as well as the sea star Linckia 
multiflora. The results of the fish census carried out at Transect T-1 are summarized in 
Table 1 and given in detail in the Appendix. Table 2 presents the results of the 
photographic survey carried out on 20 September 1994. Mean coral coverage in the 
photographic survey was estimated at 17.9%, with Porites lobata being the dominant 
coral.
In total 27 species of fishes representing 289 individuals were encountered on 
Transect T-1. The most common species included the yellowstripe goatfish or weke 
(Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), the orangebar surgeonfish or naenae (Acanthurus 
olivaceus), and the sleek unicornfish or kala holo (Naso hexacanthus). The standing crop 
of fishes on this transect was estimated at 726 g/m2. The species contributing most 
heavily to this biomass were Mulloidichthys flavolineatus at 31%, Naso hexacanthus at 
28%, and Acanthurus olivaceus at 21% of the total.
Transect T-2 was established 35 m west of Transect T-1 in water ranging from 17 to 
18.2 m in depth. A summary of the biological information collected on this transect is 
presented in Table 3. Four macroalgal species (Amansia glomerata, Porolithon onkodes, 
Sphacelaria furcigera, Polysiphonia sp., and Liagora sp.) having a mean coverage of 
1.9% were noted in the quadrat survey. Also seen were one sponge species (Spirastrella 
coccinea) and six coral species (Porites lobata, P. compressa, Pocillopora meandrina, P. 
eydouxi, Montipora verrucosa, and M. patula) having an average coverage of 31.4%. The 
largest contributor to this coverage was Porites lobata. The macroinvertebrate census 
noted two polychaete species (Spirobranchus giganteus corniculatus and Sabellastarte 
sanctijosephi), the rock oyster Spondylus tenebrosus, the cone shell Conus imperialis, 
and three sea urchin species (Tripneustes gratilla, Echinostrephus aciculatum, and 
Echinometra mathaei). The photographic quadrat survey carried out on 20 September 
1994 noted the coralline alga Porolithon onkodes, Liagora sp., and five coral species with 
a mean coverage of 25.1% 
(Table 2).
The results of the fish census are presented in the Appendix. Twenty-two fish 
species representing 168 individuals were censused on this transect; the most abundant 
species included Mulloidichthys flavolineatus and Acanthurus olivaceus. The standing 
crop of fishes was estimated at 723 g/m2, and the species that contributed the most to this 
estimated weight was the roving school of Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (44% of the 
total).
Station B  Kalihi Entrance Channel
This station is located about 2.2 km seaward of Mokauea Island, which is situated 
in Keehi Lagoon, and about 900 m west of the old outfall, which is now used as an 
emergency bypass. The two transects at this station were established on a limestone 
substratum about 
120 m east of the Kalihi Entrance Channel in water ranging from 13.7 to 15 m in depth. 
Much of the substratum in the vicinity of this station is composed of sand and rubble. An 
area of low emergent limestone approximately 60 m wide ? 110 m long, with the long 
axis oriented perpendicular to shore, is present. Transect T-3 is located on the deeper end 
of this hard substratum area. Transect T-4 is parallel to but shoreward and approximately 
8 m to the west of Transect T-3 (see Figure 3). The lack of appropriate hard substratum at 
this station necessitated establishing the two transects in an end-to-end fashion relatively 
close to one another (8 m apart). Because of this proximity, the fish censuses on both 
transects at this station are carried out prior to any other data collection. During our 1994 
survey water clarity at this station was greater than 15 m (Table 4).
Transect T-3 has an orientation that is perpendicular to shore on the limestone 
substratum in water ranging from 14.6 to 15 m in depth. A summary of the biological 
observations made at Transect T-3 is presented in Table 5. The quadrat survey noted two 
algal species (Tolypiocladia glomerulata and Halimeda opuntia) having a mean coverage 
of 0.5%, three sponge species (Spirastrella coccinea, Chondrosia chucalla, and Plakortis 
simplex) with a mean coverage of 1.1%, two soft corals (Palythoa tuberculosa and 
Anthelia edmondsoni) having a mean coverage of 0.3%, and five coral species (Porites 
lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora verrucosa, M. verrilli, and M. patula) having 
a mean estimated coverage of 1.6% (a decrease of 0.1% from the previous survey). The 
macroinvertebrate census noted an unidentified green and black polyclad species, one 
rock oyster (Spondylus tenebrosus), a hermit crab (Aniculus strigatus), four sea urchin 
species (Echinostrephus aciculatum, Echinometra mathaei, Echinothrix calamaris, and 
E. diadema) as well as the black sea cucumber Holothuria atra. The photographic 
quadrat survey found two unidentified sponge species and two coral species (Porites 
lobata and Pocillopora meandrina) having a mean coverage of 0.3% (down from 0.6% in 
the last survey).
The fish census found 13 species representing 30 individuals and an estimated 
standing crop of 27 g/m2. The most abundant fishes at Transect T-3 included the lei 
triggerfish or humuhumu lei (Sufflamen bursa), the smalltail wrasse (Pseudojuloides 
cerasinus), and the saddleback wrasse or hinalea lauwili (Thalassoma duperrey). The fish 
species contributing heavily to the biomass on Transect T-3 included a single spiny 
puffer or oopu okala (Diodon holocanthus56% of the total), and Sufflamen bursa 
(27% of the total).
Transect T-4 sampled the benthic and fish communities present in the vicinity of the 
Kalihi Entrance Channel. As with Transect T-3, Transect T-4 sampled the limestone 
substratum at a depth ranging from 13.7 to 14 m. A summary of the biological data 
collected on Transect T-4 is presented in Table 6. The quadrat survey noted two algal 
species (Martensia fragilis and Tolypiocladia glomerulata) with a mean coverage of 
0.04%, three sponge species (Spirastrella coccinea, Chondrosia chucalla, and Plakortis 
simplex) having a mean coverage of 1.3%, a soft coral (Anthelia edmondsoni), and four 
coral species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora verrucosa, and M. 
patula). Coral coverage was estimated at 3.9% (up from 3.5% in the last survey), with 
Porites lobata and Pocillopora meandrina being the major contributors. The 
macroinvertebrate census noted the polychaete Spirobranchus giganteus corniculatus), 
the crab Thalamita edwardsi, three sea urchin species (i.e., the boring urchin 
Echinostrephus aciculatum, the green urchin Echinometra mathaei, and the black urchin 
Echinothrix diadema), as well as the starfish Linckia diplax. In the photographic quadrat 
survey two unidentified sponge species and three corals (Porites lobata, Pocillopora 
meandrina, and Montipora sp.) having a mean coverage of 2.4% were seen.
The fish census noted 20 individual fishes among 9 species (Appendix). The most 
common fishes present on this transect included Sufflamen bursa, Pseudojuloides 
cerasinus, Acanthurus olivaceus, and the sharpback puffer Canthigaster jactator. The 
standing crop of fishes on Transect T-4 was estimated at 23 g/m2, and the important 
contributors to this biomass included a single barred filefish or o(,o)ili (Cantherhines 
dumerilii24% of the total) and Acanthurus olivaceus (42% of the total).
Station C  Reef Runway
This station lies between 760 and 840 m seaward of the runway in water ranging 
from 7.5 to 12 m in depth. The substratum of this area is a mosaic of emergent limestone 
spur and groove formations grading seaward into a series of low limestone mounds. The 
general orientation of the spur and groove formations is perpendicular to the shoreline 
and direction of usual wave impact. The spurs, which are 5 to 40 m in width and 30 to 80 
m in length, are spaced from 10 to 100 m apart. Sand is the dominant substratum in the 
intervening areas. The maximum topographical relief formed by these spurs is about 3.5 
m. Just seaward of this is a zone of low emergent limestone where patches of hard 
bottom 5 m ? 10 m to several hundred square meters in size are present. Spacing between 
these limestone areas is 10 to 50 m; again, sand is found in the intervening areas. Corals 
are restricted to the areas of hard substratum. Water clarity at this station ranged from 10 
to 15 m during our 1994 visits; usually clarity here does not exceed 12 m. On 14 October 
1994, the depth to secchi disk extinction was greater than the water depth (i.e., more than 
15 m, see Table 4).
Hurricane Iniki, which occurred in September 1992, caused considerable damage to 
the benthic communities at Station C. A large (approximately 60 m in diameter) sand 
patch located between Transects T-5 and T-6 had been replaced by coral rubble. Much of 
the hard substratum on both transects was broken and the underlying limestone rock 
exposed, and crevices and holes were filled in with coral rubble. These physical changes 
noted in the September 1992 survey were much the same in the October 1994 survey.
Transects T-5 and T-6 were established on spurs or ridges of limestone (see Figure 
4). Transect T-5 was established on a limestone ridge at a depth of 9.1 to 11 m. Table 7 
presents the results of the biological survey carried out at Transect T-5. The quadrat 
survey noted four algal species (Porolithon onkodes, Amansia glomerata, Cladymenia 
pacifica, and Tolypiocladia glomerulata) having a mean coverage of 16.3%, the soft 
coral Palythoa tuberculosa with a mean coverage of 0.1%, and six coral species (Porites 
lobata, P. compressa, Pocillopora meandrina, Pavona duerdeni, P. varians, and 
Montipora patula) having a mean coverage of 1.9%. This coverage is up from 1.5% in 
the previous survey. The invertebrate census found one tiger cowry (Cypraea tigris), and 
three sea urchin species (Tripneustes gratilla, Echinothrix calamaris, and Echinometra 
mathaei) in the transect area. The photographic quadrat survey completed on 19 
September 1994 (Table 2) noted three algal species (Porolithon onkodes, Hydrolithon 
reinboldii, and Gibsmithsia hawaiiensis), the soft coral Palythoa tuberculosa, and three 
coral species (Pocillopora meandrina, Porites lobata, and Montipora sp. [?]) having a 
mean estimated coverage of 0.8% (up from 0.4% in the previous year).
The fish census (Appendix) noted 169 individuals among 26 species. The most 
common species included the brown surgeonfish or maiii (Acanthurus nigrofuscus), a 
damselfish (Chromis hanui), and the goldring surgeonfish or kole (Ctenochaetus 
strigosus). The standing crop of fishes on Transect T-5 was estimated at 63 g/m2, with the 
most important contributors including Ctenochaetus strigosus (25% of the total weight), 
the bulletnose parrotfish or uhu (Scarus sordidus21% of the total), and Acanthurus 
nigrofuscus (14% of the total).
Transect T-6 was established approximately 80 m seaward of Transect T-5. The 
substratum at Transect T-6 was similar to that at Transect T-5 and is situated on a 
limestone spur that is about 40 m in width and 80 m in length. Water depth at this 
location varies between 10.7 and 11.6 m. A summary of the biological observations made 
on Transect T-6 is given in Table 8. The quadrat survey found three algal species 
(Porolithon onkodes, Martensia fragilis, and Tolypiocladia sp.) having a mean coverage 
of 11.4%, two soft corals (Anthelia edmondsoni and Palythoa tuberculosa), and six coral 
species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora patula, M. verrucosa, Pavona 
duerdeni, and P. varians) having a mean coverage of 8.3%. This coral coverage estimate 
is up from last years estimate of 5.2%. The census of macroinvertebrates noted four 
species: the terebellid polychaete worm Loimia medusa, the banded shrimp (Stenopus 
hispidus), the green sea urchin (Echinometra mathaei), and the long-spined black sea 
urchin or wana (Echinothrix diadema). The photo quadrat survey (Table 2) noted 
Porolithon onkodes with a mean coverage of 11.2%, the soft coral Palythoa tuberculosa, 
and four coral species (Porites compressa, P. lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, and 
Montipora sp. [?]) with a mean coverage of 6.5%.
The fish census noted 224 individuals belonging to 27 species in the 4 m ? 20 m 
area. The most abundant fishes on Transect T-6 included the brown surgeonfish or 
maiii (Acanthurus nigrofuscus), the goldring surgeonfish or kole (Ctenochaetus 
strigosus), and the bulletnose parrotfish or uhu (Scarus sordidus). The standing crop of 
fishes on this transect was estimated at 86 g/m2; the largest contributors to this biomass 
included Scarus sordidus (31% of the total), Ctenochaetus strigosus (20% of the total), 
and Acanthurus nigrofuscus (15% of the total).
Prior to Hurricane Iniki, green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were usually seen in the 
vicinity of Transect T-6. These turtles have been absent in this area since the hurricane, 
probably due to the loss of resting habitat by infilling (i.e., the resting site was completely 
covered with coral rubble). During the October 1994 field work, green sea turtles were 
seen in other areas (about 200 m east of Transects T-5 and T-6).
Physical measurements were made in the morning on 14 October 1994. These data 
are presented in Table 4. Little variation was noted in temperature (25.1 to 25.4C), 
percent oxygen saturation (103% to 104%), or salinity (all 34), despite the fact that 
measurements for oxygen and temperature were made both at the surface and about 1 m 
above the bottom. In all cases the secchi disk measurements did not yield an extinction 
value; water clarity was such that from the surface the disk was still plainly visible on the 
bottom. As has been suggested previously, a better method of determining water clarity 
would be to collect water samples and measure turbidity with a nephalometer in the 
laboratory.
The biological data for all five surveys (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994) are 
summarized as means for each transect in Table 9. The previous annual data are from 
Brock (1992a, 1992b, 1993, 1994). Differences are apparent for some of the parameters 
among the five years. Some change is evident in the benthic measures (such as coral 
cover) between the 1991 and 1992 (pre- and post-hurricane) surveys, and this is to be 
expected. Despite these changes the KruskalWallis ANOVA shows that there is only 
one parameter showing any statistically significant change over the five-year period. 
Parameters showing no statistically significant changes from the 1990 survey to the 1994 
field effort include the mean coral cover on a transect (p > 0.91, df = 4, not significant), 
mean number of invertebrate species on a transect (p > 0.16, df = 4, not significant), 
mean number of individual invertebrates on a transect (p > 0.81, df = 4, not significant), 
mean number of fish species on a transect (p > 0.41, df = 4, not significant), mean 
number of individual fish on a transect (p > 0.29, df = 4, not significant), and mean 
standing crop on a transect (p > 0.73, df = 4, not significant). The mean number of coral 
species on a transect has generally increased during the period of this study, resulting in a 
statistically significant change (p > 0.05, df = 4). However, the StudentNewmanKeuls 
multiple range test demonstrated that there are no statistically significant differences 
among any of these parameters between the six stations and five sampling periods.
The biological parameters measured in the five surveys (i.e., number of coral 
species, percent cover, number of macroinvertebrate species, number of fish species, 
number of individual fish, and biomass of fishes) point to the fact that the Kewalo 
Landfill station has the most diverse communities, followed by the Reef Runway station. 
The least diverse communities appear to be at the Kalihi Entrance Channel station. This 
hierarchy has not changed over the five survey years. The low biological diversity at the 
Kalihi Entrance Channel station is not surprising in view of the fact that this station was 
heavily impacted by the old shallow-water outfall until 1978 and that there is not much 
topographic relief to provide shelter at this location.
From a commercial fisheries standpoint, a number of important species have been 
consistently encountered in the vicinity of the Kewalo Landfill and Reef Runway 
stations, including goatfishes (weke or Mulloidichthys flavolineatus and wekeula or M. 
vanicolensis), amberjack or kahala (Seriola dumerili), emperor fish or mu (Monotaxis 
grandoculis), grey snapper or uku (Aprion virescens), and squirrelfish or menpachi 
(Myripristis amaenus).
DISCUSSION
Since their delineation in December 1990, the six transects have been visited on a 
number of occasions to insure that, among other things, the permanent markers are 
remaining in place. During these visits reconnaissance surveys have been carried out in 
the areas surrounding the selected stations. At a minimum, these qualititative surveys 
have covered about 4 hectares around each of the three stations. These qualitative 
observations suggest that the marine communities sampled at the three stations are 
representative of those found in the surrounding areas.
The working hypothesis is that all three stations, being situated in relatively shallow 
water, are outside of the zone of influence of the present deep ocean outfall. However, if 
impacts from the present deep ocean outfall are occurring to the shallow-water coral reef 
areas shoreward of the outfall, our monitoring should be able to quantitatively discern 
these impacts. Because of bottom time constraints, potential dangers with deep diving, 
and the fact that coral community development is usually greatest in water less than 30 m 
deep, the placement of biological monitoring stations was restricted to waters up to 20 m 
deep in this study. Monitoring the shallow-water stations provides additional information 
regarding the recovery of these communities from the perturbation of raw sewage 
released from the old shallow-water outfall from 1955 to 1977. Dollars (1979) study 
showed that the Kewalo Landfill station was not directly impacted by discharge from the 
old outfall, but the Kalihi Entrance Channel station was acutely perturbed and the 
station offshore of the Reef Runway received an intermediate level of disturbance. 
Additionally, in the mid-1970s the construction of the reef runway must have contributed 
to the disturbance of benthic communities at this station (Chapman 1979). The result of 
these impacts is still evident in the average coral cover estimates made at these stations: 
the mean coverage offshore of the Kalihi Entrance Channel is only 3%; at the Reef 
Runway station it is 4%, and offshore of the Kewalo Landfill it is 25%.
The shallow marine ecosystem fronting Sand Island and Honolulu has received 
considerable perturbation from human activity over the last 100 years. Among the 
perturbations has been the disposal of raw sewage effluent in shallow water from the 
1930s until 197778, when the deep ocean outfall became operational. From 1955 
through 1977 the shallow-water outfall released 62 mgd (3 m3/s) of raw sewage. Dollar 
(1979) noted two distinct zones of impact to marine communities: the area of acute 
perturbation was an ellipse 500 m to the east and 1000 m to the west of the outfall. 
Outside this area the impacts were evident in a decreasing gradient with distance from the 
outfall. The maximal extent of impact attributed to this sewage input was 1.9 km to the 
east and 5.8 km to the west of the outfall. The ellipsoid shape of the zone of influence 
was attributed to the predominant westerly direction of current flow.
The Kewalo Landfill station is 4.75 km east and inshore of the terminus of the deep 
ocean outfall, the Kalihi Entrance Channel station is about 2.1 km east and inshore of the 
terminus, and the Reef Runway station is about 3.25 km inshore and west of the deep 
ocean outfall terminus (Figure 1). Presumably, the present outfall releases the sewage 
below the pycnocline, and little interaction occurs with the inshore biota. Dollars (1979) 
findings suggest that if the material was carried to inshore waters, impacts to shallow 
marine communities would occur in those communities situated primarily to the west of 
the outfall.
The Kewalo Landfill station serves as a control station in this study; although coral 
coverage and fish community development are greater at this location, the station has 
received perturbations in the past. The two transects (T-1 and T-2) that sample the 
Kewalo Landfill station are situated close to an old, nonoperable sewage discharge pipe. 
Operations utilizing this discharge pipe ceased sometime before 1955; the pipe was 
probably used sometime in the 1940s (Mr. A. Muranaka, Oceanographic Team, 
Department of Wastewater Management, City and County of Honolulu, personal 
communication). The development of Kewalo Basin and the entrance channel in the mid-
1930s would have created considerable turbidity that probably impacted this station, 
which is about 200 m west of the Kewalo Basin entrance channel. From a historical 
perspective, human-induced perturbations have probably occurred in all marine 
communities situated in shallow waters fronting Honolulu during the last 100 years. The 
Kewalo Landfill station was selected as the control station for this study because of its 
relatively diverse coral and fish communities, as well as its location well to the east of the 
present deep ocean outfall (presumably out of the zone of influence).
On 11 September 1992 the Hawaiian islands were struck by Hurricane Iniki. The 
hurricane passed directly over Kauai, with sustained winds of 144 mph and gusts to 172 
mph resulting in considerable damage to improvements and forests on that island and the 
west (leeward) coast of Oahu. To a lesser extent, high surf caused damage to marine 
communities along the south, east, and west shores of Oahu, Kauai, Maui, Lo(,a)nai, 
and Hawaii; this damage was primarily to coral communities. In many areas a large 
amount of sand and other loose material was moved and/or advected out of the shallow 
areas (i.e., depths of less than 27 m) into deeper waters. On Oahu, storm waves 
emanating from the southeast were estimated to exceed 7 m in height and were breaking 
in water at least 20 m deep (personal observations).
Storm damage to benthic and fish communities is frequently patchy, resulting in a 
mosaic of destruction (personal observations; Walsh 1983), and an occasional storm 
event generating high surf is one of the most important parameters in determining the 
structure of Hawaiian coral communities (Dollar 1982). Numerous studies have shown 
that storm-generated surf may keep coral reefs in a nonequilibrium or subclimactic state 
(Grigg and Maragos 1974; Connell 1978; Woodley et al. 1981; Grigg 1983). The large 
expanses of near-featureless lava or limestone substratum present around much of the 
Hawaiian islands at depths less than 30 m attest to the force and frequency of these events 
(Brock and Norris 1989). These same wave forces also impinge upon and impact fish 
communities (Walsh 1983).
Hurricane Iniki caused damage to coral communities at all three study sites. The 
greatest impact occurred to the benthic communities at Station C (Reef Runway), where 
areas of the Porolithon-covered substratum (up to 1 m ? 2 m in area and up to 0.75 m in 
depth) were completely removed. Other areas were entirely covered with coral rubble at 
scales from 10 m2 to over 30 m2. In some cases a blanket up to 0.5 m of rubble buried 
coral colonies or killed the lower portions of larger colonies. The hurricane broke many 
coral colonies into pieces; some of these have survived where they have been lodged into 
the substratum. These live fragments are responsible for the increase in the number of 
coral species seen in some quadrats between the pre- (1991) and post-hurricane (1992 
through 1994) surveys. This phenomenon (i.e., live fragments) also served to lessen the 
decrease in coral cover encountered in some of the quadrats where coverage was low 
prior to the storm. Despite these large changes, many of the benthic components 
survived, and these communities are recovering well, as evidenced in the increases in 
coral cover. However, since Hawaiian corals are relatively slow growing, it will be years 
before the impact of this large storm will no longer be evident in the benthic communities 
at the study sites.
The hurricane also impacted the fish communities at the sample sites. Coral rubble 
deposited in depressions serves to lessen the rugosity of the submarine topography (i.e., 
shelter) available to fishes. The loss of local shelter causes fishes to move and take up 
residence elsewhere. At the Reef Runway station, where considerable rubble was present, 
many of the resident fishes (such as the school of emperor fish or mu [Monotaxis 
grandoculis]) were no longer found on Transect T-6 after the hurricane. These fish had 
moved about 100 m east to an area where the coral and benthic communities remained 
relatively intact.
Despite the impact of Hurricane Iniki, the summary data in Table 9, which spans 
five years (December 1990 to October 1994), show that there has been no statistically 
significant change in the biological parameters measured in this study other than for the 
mean number of coral species. In this case, the mean number of coral species has 
significantly increased through time, suggesting an improvement in conditions. This 
increase is probably related to the dispersion of live coral fragments by the hurricane and 
their subsequent survival and growth, rather than any real change in environmental 
conditions at the sampled stations.
In Table 9 the most variable parameters through time have been the number of fish 
censused and the estimated standing crop of fish; these changes have been greatest at the 
Kewalo Landfill station. Relative to many other locations in the Hawaiian islands, the 
fish community is well developed at the Kewalo Landfill station. The high standing crop 
estimates in 1990, 1992, 1993, and 1994 are much greater than for most coral reefs; the 
maximum fish standing crop encountered on natural coral reefs is about 200 g/m2 
(Goldman and Talbot 1975; Brock et al. 1979). Three explanations for the high biomass 
of fishes at the Kewalo Landfill station are (1) the shelter created by the old sewer pipe 
and growth of coral on this pipe locally enhances the fish community, (2) chance 
encounters occur with roving predators or planktivorous and/or other schooling species 
during censuses, and (3) in the summer of 1993 a scuba dive tour operation began feeding 
the fish in the vicinity of the pipe. The fish feeding has resulted in an aggregating effect 
of some species such as the yellowstripe goatfish or weke (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), 
the bluelined snapper or taape (Lutjanus kasmira), and the black triggerfish or 
humuhumu eleele (Melichthys niger).
Space and cover are important agents governing the distribution of coral reef fishes 
(Risk 1972; Sale 1977; Gladfelter and Gladfelter 1978; Brock et al. 1979; Ogden and 
Ebersole 1981; Anderson et al. 1981; Shulman et al. 1983; Shulman 1984; Eckert 1985; 
Walsh 1985; Alevizon et al. 1985). Similarly, the standing crop of fishes on a reef is 
correlated with the degree of vertical relief of the substratum. Thus Brock (1954), using 
visual techniques on Hawaiian reefs, estimated the standing crop of fishes to range from 
4 g/m2 on sand flats to a maximum of 186 g/m2 in an area of considerable vertical relief. 
If structural complexity or topographical relief is important to coral reef fish 
communities, then the addition of materials to increase this relief in otherwise barren 
areas may serve to locally enhance the biomass of fish. The additional topographical 
relief is usually in the form of artificial reefs but any underwater structure (such as a 
deployed sewer line) will have a similar effect. The old sewage discharge pipe is set 
above the seafloor, creating considerable local topographical relief (about 2 m high) in an 
area where the maximum natural vertical relief does not exceed 25 cm. The shelter and 
high topographical relief must foster greater development of the fish community (see 
Brock and Norris 1989).
Chance encounters with large roving predators (such as uku or Aprion virescens, 
mu or Monotaxis grandoculis, kahala or Seriola dumerili, papio or Caranx melampygus 
or C. orthogrammus), schools of planktivorous fishes (opelu or Decapterus macarellus, 
kala holo or Naso hexacanthus, kala lolo or N. brevirostris, lauwiliwili or Chaetodon 
miliaris, mamo or Abudefduf abdominalis), or other schooling species (weke or 
Mulloidichthys flavolineatus) may greatly increase the counts and biomass at a particular 
transect. The presence of the sewage discharge pipe serves to focus numerous predators 
and schooling fishes in the vicinity of the two transects at the Kewalo Landfill station; 
hence, an encounter with these fishes during a census will result in high biomass 
estimates. In 1990, at Transect T-6 (Reef Runway) chance encounters with a small school 
of Monotaxis grandoculis accounted for 51% of the biomass there, and at Transect T-2 
(Kewalo Landfill) chance encounters with Naso hexacanthus and N. brevirostris 
accounted for 40% of the biomass and with Seriola dumerili and Caranx orthogrammus 
for 21% to the biomass. In 1991 Naso hexacanthus and N. brevirostris and some 
predators were present around Transects T-1 and T-2 but did not enter the actual census 
area while the counts were being made, thus they do not appear in the data. In 1992 the 
large school of Mulloidichthys flavolineatus that are resident to the old sewage discharge 
pipe made up 78% of the biomass present on Transect T-1 and 93% on Transect T-2; in 
1993 this same school comprised 87% of the biomass present on Transect T-1 and 79% 
on Transect T-2. In 1994 Mulloidichthys flavolineatus made up 31% of the standing crop 
on Transect T-1 and 44% on Transect T-2.
Making biological measurements underwater can often be a time-consuming 
process; use of the photographic technique lessens bottom time in measuring coral and 
other benthic species coverage. However, as noted by Brock (1992b), inspection of the 
results of the coral coverage data from visual assessment of quadrats in the field relative 
to the data obtained using the photographic method points out several things. First, mean 
coral coverage estimates are in reasonable agreement using either method, and the 
regression of visual versus the photographic coverage data shows a statistically 
significant relationship. However, the photographic quadrat technique does not discern 
small coral colonies or other small colonial benthic species such as the soft coral Anthelia 
edmondsoni; these are easily seen in the field using the visual assessment method. Both 
methods work, but the technique selected should be done so while keeping the objectives 
of the study in mind. This study will continue to use both methods.
The six transects selected for this study show a considerable range in community 
development that is probably related to historical impacts. Separating the impact of 
advanced primary-treated effluent released at depth from a multitude of other ongoing 
and historical impacts that have occurred in and to the shallow marine communities 
fronting Sand Island is difficult at best. The added natural disturbance of Hurricane Iniki 
on 11 September 1992 provided additional impact to these communities that varied 
tremendously with location. However, the siting of these permanent stations to capitalize 
on presumed gradient(s) of impact created by the variety of land-derived sources, as well 
as the repeated sampling of these permanent stations, should allow delineation of any 
changes attributable to the Sand Island deep ocean outfall. The sampling of these stations 
during the first two years (1990 and 1991) showed that there was little change to the 
communities during that time, suggesting that there was no quantitatively definable 
impact to shallow-water benthic and fish communities due to the operation of the Sand 
Island deep ocean outfall. Many of the changes seen in the 1992 survey appear to be 
related to the natural storm event that occurred in September of that year. Both the 1993 
and 1994 data suggest that recovery from the hurricane is well underway, particularly in 
the coral communities.
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