COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF FISH AND MACROBENTHOS
AT SELECTED SITES FRONTING SAND ISLAND, OAHU, HAWAII,
IN RELATION TO THE SAND ISLAND OCEAN OUTFALL,
YEAR 71996





Richard E. Brock






Project Report PR-97-04








February 1997







PREPARED FOR
City and County of Honolulu
Department of Wastewater Management
Project Report
for
The Assessment of the Impact of Ocean Sewer Outfalls
on the Marine Environment Off Oahu, Hawaii
Project No.:  C39805
Project Period:  1 January 199531 September 1997
Principal Investigator:  Roger S. Fujioka


WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER
University of Hawaii at Mo(,a)noa
Honolulu, Hawaii  96822



ABSTRACT
This report provides the results of the seventh year of an annual quantitative 
monitoring (carried out in August and November 1996) of shallow marine communities 
inshore of the Sand Island Ocean Outfall, Oahu, Hawaii. This monitoring effort focuses 
on benthic and fish community structure and is designed to detect changes in these 
communities. Marine communities offshore of Honolulu have received considerable 
perturbation over the last 100 years. Dumping of raw sewage in shallow water, which 
occurred from 1955 to 1977, was halted in 1978; however, point and nonpoint sources of 
pollution from both urban activities and industry continue. All of these disturbances may 
serve to obscure any impacts that may be caused by treated effluent discharged from the 
deep-ocean outfall. The marine communities show a considerable range in development 
that is probably related to historical impacts. Stations have been located to take advantage 
of these gradients. Analysis of the seven years of data showed that there has been no 
statistically significant change in the following biological measures: percent coral cover, 
number of coral species, number of invertebrate species, total number of invertebrates 
counted, number of fish species, total number of fishes counted, and the biomass of fishes 
present at each station. Hurricane Iniki, which occurred in September 1992, impacted 
marine communities along the south shore of Oahu. Coral communities received 
considerable damage, especially at the westernmost study station. Recovery in these 
communities is evident from the four years of data collected since the storm. Thus far, 
this study has not detected a quantifiable negative impact from the operation of the Sand 
Island Ocean Outfall.


INTRODUCTION
Purpose
In recent years controversy has arisen regarding the impact that sewage effluent 
from the Sand Island Wastewater Treatment Plant may have on inshore coral reef species. 
Much of the geographical area of concern in this study was impacted by the release of 62 
mgd (3 m3/s) of raw sewage in 10 m of water off Sand Island from 1955 to 1977. Starting 
in 1978 sewage received primary treatment and was released farther offshore of Sand 
Island from a deep-ocean outfall (67 to 73 m depth). Despite studies that demonstrated 
the recovery of inshore benthic communities once the shallow sewage stress was 
removed (e.g., Dollar 1979), concern continues over the possible impact that the release 
of sewage effluent from the deep-ocean outfall may be having on the shallow (<20 m 
depth) marine communities fronting Honolulu and Sand Island. Accordingly, beginning 
in 1990, this study was undertaken in an attempt to quantitatively ascertain the impacts 
that may be occurring. This document presents the results of the seventh annual survey 
carried out in August and November 1996.
Strategy
Marine environmental surveys are usually performed to evaluate the feasibility of 
and ecosystem response to specific proposed activities. Appropriate survey 
methodologies reflect the nature of the proposed action(s). An action that may have an 
acute impact (such as channel dredging) requires a survey designed to determine the 
route of least harm and the projected rate and degree of ecosystem recovery. Impacts that 
are more chronic or progressive require different strategies for measurement. 
Management of chronic stress to a marine ecosystem requires identification of system 
perturbations that exceed boundaries of natural fluctuations. Thus a thorough 
understanding of normal ecosystem variability is required to separate the impact signal 
from background noise. Infrequent natural events may add considerably to the 
variability or background noise measured in a marine community. In September 1992 
Hurricane Iniki struck the Hawaiian islands and impacted some marine communities 
along Oahus south shore. This rare event has provided this study with information on 
the magnitude of such natural impacts.
Rare storm events not withstanding, the potential impacts occurring to the marine 
ecosystem offshore of Sand Island and Honolulu are most probably those associated with 
chronic or progressive stresses. Because of the proximity of the population center and 
industry, marine communities fronting Honolulu are subjected to a wide array of impacts 
not usually occurring in other Hawaiian coral communities. Thus a sampling strategy 
must attempt to separate impacts due to wastewater treatment plant effluent on coral reef 
communities located at some distance shoreward from a host of other perturbations 
occurring in the waters fronting Honolulu.
Honolulu Harbor has been the primary commercial port for the State of Hawaii 
since before the turn of the century (Scott 1968). The harbor is the result of dredging 
what was originally the drainage basin of Nuuanu Stream. Dredging began before 1900, 
and periodic maintenance dredging still occurs. Until about 1960 spoils were dropped just 
outside of the harbor, generally to the east of the Sand Island Ocean Outfall. Besides 
shipping, the harbor is ringed with industry; pineapple canneries, gas and oil storage, and 
numerous other businesses have operated or are still operating here. Storm drainage into 
the harbor and nearby Keehi Lagoon carries runoff from Honolulus streets and suburbs 
into the ocean. Pollution is well known in the harbor; conditions are described as early as 
1920 in references cited by Cox and Gordon (1970). Sewage has been pumped into the 
ocean offshore of Kewalo and Sand Island since the 1930s. The early inputs were all raw 
sewage released in water not exceeding 20 m in depth. The actual point of release varied 
through time as different pipes were constructed and used. The multitude of perturbations 
that occurred in shallow water (<20 m) until the construction of the present deep water 
outfall in 1978 may serve to obscure the impacts from the present discharge.
The waters fronting Sand Island, into which the deep-ocean outfall discharges, may 
be considered in terms of gradients. There are numerous gradients owing to point-
source and nonpoint-source (such as storm drains and streams) inputs into Honolulu 
Harbor and the surrounding area from the above-mentioned activities. Because many of 
these inputs have been occurring for a considerable period of time, the species 
composition and functional relationships of the benthic and fish communities at any 
given location in the waters offshore of Honolulu and the harbor are those that have 
evolved under the influence of these ongoing perturbations.
As noted above, if impacts are occurring in the shallow marine communities fronting Honolulu owing to 
sewage effluent discharged from the deep-ocean outfall, they are probably chronic in nature, thus causing a 
slow decline in the communities so affected. Gradients of stress or impact should be evident with 
distance from impact source(s). Thus, to quantitatively define these impacts, one should monitor these 
communities through time in areas suspected of being impacted as well as in similar communities at 
varying distances away from the suspected source(s). This rationale has been used in developing the 
sampling strategy for this study. 
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The quantitative sampling of macrofauna of marine communities presents a number 
of problems; many of these are related to the scale on which one wishes to quantitatively 
enumerate organism abundance. Marine communities in the waters fronting Sand Island 
may be spatially defined in a range on the order of a few hundred square centimeters 
(such as the community living in a Pocillopora meandrina coral head) to many hectares 
(such as areas which are covered by major biotopes). Because considerable interest 
focuses on visually dominant corals, diurnally exposed macroinvertebrates, and fishes, 
we designed a sampling program to delineate changes that may be occurring in 
communities at this scale.
Three stations were selected for the monitoring of benthic and fish community 
response to possible sewage impacts. Their approximate locations are shown in Figure 1. 
The stations are close to some stations previously used by Dollar (1979). The stations and 
the rationale for their selection are given below:
Station A  
(Kewalo Landfill)
Utilized as a control area. This station lies east of the 
present deep-ocean outfall in 17.0 to 18.2 m of water. 
Prevailing currents create a westerly movement of 
sewage effluent (Dollar 1979), thus the shallow Kewalo 
Landfill area is probably not directly impacted. At this 
location, corals occur in areas of emergent limestone. 
Local coverage over short linear distances may exceed 
30%. This station is in the vicinity of Dollars (1979) 
station 2.
Station B  
(Kalihi Channel)
Located about 120 m east of the Kalihi Entrance 
Channel in approximately 15 m of water. This station is 
about 900 m west of the bypass (old) outfall in an area 
heavily impacted by the old (1955 to 1977) shallow-
water discharge and is very close to Dollars (1979) 
station 14. There is emergent limestone at this station, 
but coral coverage is low (<1%).
Station C  
(Reef Runway)
Located in an area of complex limestone substratum in 
water ranging from 7.5 to 12.0 m in depth fronting 
Honolulu International Airports Reef Runway. This 
station location is close to Brocks (1986) station that 
was monitored quarterly in 197778 (AECOS, Inc. 
1979) and again in 1986. It is close to Dollars (1979) 
station 19. This station was moderately impacted by the 
old shallow-water sewage outfall (Dollar 1979).
At each station two transect lines were permanently established using metal stakes 
and plastic-coated no. 14 copper wire. The transects are 20 m in length and have an 
orientation that is perpendicular to shore. Two transects were established at each location 
to provide some replication. Both sample approximately the same benthic communities. 
On each transect are five permanently marked locations (0 m, 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 
m) for the taking of photographs of the benthic communities. Cover estimates are also 
made in the field with a 1 m ? 1 m quadrat placed at the -1 to 0 m, 4 to 5 m, 9 to 10 m, 14 
to 15 m, and 19 to 20 m marks on the transect line in each survey.
Fish abundance and diversity are often related to small-scale topographical relief 
over short linear distances. A long transect may bisect a number of topographical features 
(e.g., coral mounds, sand flats, and algal beds), thus sampling more than one community 
and obscuring distinctive features of individual communities. To alleviate this problem, a 
short transect (20 m in length), which has proved to be adequate for sampling many 
Hawaiian benthic communities (see Brock 1982; Brock and Norris 1989), is used.
Information is collected at each transect location using methods including a visual 
assessment of fishes, benthic quadrats for cover estimates of sessile forms (e.g., algae, 
corals, and colonial invertebrates), and counts along the transect line for diurnally 
exposed motile macroinvertebrates. Fish censuses are conducted over a 20 m ? 4 m 
corridor (the permanent transect line). All fishes within this area to the waters surface 
are counted. A single diver equipped with scuba, slate, and pencil enters the water, then 
counts and notes all fishes in the prescribed area (method modified from Brock 1954). 
Besides counting the numbers of individuals of all fishes seen, the length of each is 
estimated for later use in the estimation of fish standing crop by linear regression 
techniques (Ricker 1975). Species-specific regression coefficients have been developed 
over the last 30 years by the author and others at the University of Hawaii, Naval 
Undersea Center (see Evans 1974), and the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources using 
weight and body measurements of captured fishes; for many species the coefficients have 
been developed using sample sizes in excess of a hundred individuals. For the 1990 
survey two weeks were allowed to elapse from the time of station selection and marking 
to the time of the first fish census to reduce the bias caused by wary fishes. The same 
individual (the author) performs all fish censuses to reduce bias. 
Besides frightening wary fishes, other problems with the visual census technique 
include the underestimation of cryptic species such as moray eels (family Muraenidae) 
and nocturnal species such as squirrelfishes (family Holocentridae) and bigeyes or 
o(,a)weoweo (family Priacanthidae). This problem is compounded in areas of high 
relief and coral coverage that affords numerous shelter sites. Species lists and abundance 
estimates are more accurate for areas of low relief, although some fishes with cryptic 
habits or protective coloration, such as scorpionfishes or nohu (family Scorpaenidae) and 
flatfishes (family Bothidae), might still be missed. Another problem is the reduced 
effectiveness of the visual census technique in turbid water. This is compounded by the 
difficulty of counting fishes that move quickly or are very numerous. Additionally, bias 
related to the experience of the census taker should be considered in making comparisons 
between surveys. Despite these problems, the visual census technique is probably the 
most accurate, nondestructive assessment method currently available for counting 
diurnally active fishes (Brock 1982).
A number of methods are utilized to quantitatively assess benthic communities at 
each station, including the taking of photographs at locations marked for repeated 
sampling through time (each covering 0.67 m2) and the placing of 1 m ? 1 m quadrats at 
marked locations for repeated measurements. The photographs and quadrats are both 
used to estimate coverage of corals and other sessile forms. Photographs, which provide a 
permanent record from which to estimate coverage, were used in the six most recent 
surveys (1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996); the 1 m ? 1 m quadrats were used for 
an in-the-field appraisal of coverage in all surveys. Cover estimates from photographs 
and quadrats are all recorded as percent cover. Diurnally exposed motile 
macroinvertebrates greater than 2 cm in some dimension are censused in the same 4 m ? 
20 m corridor used for the fish counts. 
Macrothalloid algae encountered in the 1 m ? 1 m quadrats or photographs were 
quantitatively recorded as percent cover. Emphasis was placed on those species that were 
visually dominant, and no attempt was made to quantitatively assess the multitude of 
microalgal species that constitute the algal turf so characteristic of many coral reef 
habitats. 
As requested by permit agencies, divers made simple physical measurements at the 
three stations while in the field. Measurements of percent oxygen concentration and 
temperature were made with a YSI Model 57 Oxygen meter, salinity was taken with a 
hand-held refractometer, and water clarity was determined using a 12-inch secchi disk.
Data were subjected to simple nonparametric statistical procedures provided in the 
SAS Institute statistical package (SAS Institute, Inc. 1985). Nonparametric methods were 
used to avoid meeting requirements of normal distribution and homogeneity of variance 
in the data. Data were analyzed using the KruskalWallis one-way analysis of variance to 
discern statistically significant differences among ranked means for each transect site and 
sample period; this procedure is outlined by Siegel (1956) and Sokal and Rohlf (1981). 
The a posteriori StudentNewmanKeuls multiple-range test (SAS Institute, Inc. 1985) 
was also used to elucidate differences between locations.
During fieldwork, an effort was made to note the presence of any green sea turtles (a threatened species) 
within or near the study sites.
RESULTS
Field sampling was first undertaken on 2729 December 1990. Station locations 
were selected and marked in November 1990. The permanent pins were deployed about a 
week later. Figure 1 shows the approximate locations of the three stations, each with a 
pair of transects. Figures 2, 3, and 4 are sketches showing the orientation of the 
permanent photographic quadrats on each transect line. Data were collected from the 
same locations as follows: 1991 data on 56 December 1991, 1992 data on 2122 
December 1992 and 25 January 1993, 1993 data on 78 September 1993, 1994 data on 
20 September and 1314 October 1994, 1995 data on 28 August and 7 September 1995, 
and 1996 data on 26 and 29 August as well as 2021 November 1996.
Malfunction of a new Nikonos V camera caused the loss of all photographic quadrat 
data for all stations in the first (1990) field effort. Subsequently, the annual photography 
effort has been carried out by members of the Oceanographic Team, Department of 
Wastewater Management, City and County of Honolulu. However, the 1990 visually 
assessed square-meter-quadrat survey provided information on benthic coverage. 
Subsequent surveys have used both photographic and quadrat methods to assess the 
benthic communities. It should be noted that the numbering of photo quadrats has 
changed since the 1991 survey, but the locations remain the same.
The results are presented below by station. 
Station A  Kewalo Landfill 
Station A is located 600 m offshore of the old Kewalo Landfill in water ranging 
from 17.0 to 18.2 m in depth on a substratum dominated by limestone with moderate 
coral community development. The two transects are 35 m apart, out of visual range of 
one another (see Figure 2). Water clarity at this station usually ranges from 15 to 20 m.
A summary of the data collected at Transect T-1 on 20 November 1996 is presented 
in Table 1. In the quadrat survey, five coral species having a mean estimated coverage of 
27.3% were encountered; the dominant species were Porites lobata and Pocillopora 
meandrina. One algal species (Amansia glomerata) having a mean coverage of 0.7% was 
noted in the quadrats. The macroinvertebrate census noted the Christmas tree worm 
Spirobranchus giganteus corniculatus, the rock oyster Spondylus tenebrosus, the drupe 
shell Drupa speciosa, and three echinoderm species including the long-spined black sea 
urchin [or wana] Echinothrix diadema, the black sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla, and the 
green starfish Linckia diplax. The results of the fish census carried out at Transect T-1 are 
summarized in Table 1 and given in detail in the Appendix. Table 2 presents the results 
of the photographic survey carried out on 26 August 1996. Mean coral coverage in the 
photographic survey was estimated at 18.6%, with Porites lobata being the dominant 
coral. 
In total, 33 species of fishes representing 554 individuals were encountered on 
Transect T-1. The most common species included the yellowfin goatfish or wekeula 
(Mulloidichthys vanicolensis), the manybar goatfish or moano (Parupeneus 
multifasciatus), the damselfishes Chromis vanderbilti and Chromis ovalis, the bulletnose 
parrotfish or uhu (Scarus sordidus), the palenose parrotfish or uhu (Scarus psittacus), and 
the sleek unicornfish or kala holo (Naso hexacanthus). The standing crop of fishes on this 
transect was estimated at 444 g/m2. The species contributing most heavily to this biomass 
were Mulloidichthys vanicolensis (57% of the total) and M. flavolineatus 7% of the 
total). 
Transect T-2 was established 35 m west of Transect T-1 in water ranging from 17.0 
to 18.2 m in depth. A summary of the biological information collected on this transect is 
presented in Table 3. Two algal species (Amansia glomerata and Porolithon onkodes) 
having a mean coverage of 3.1% were noted in the quadrat survey. Also seen were the 
red sponge Spirastrella coccinea with a mean coverage of 0.2% and eight coral species 
(Porites lobata, 
P. compressa, Pocillopora meandrina, P. eydouxi, Montipora verrucosa, M. patula, 
Pavona varians, and Leptastrea purpurea) having a mean coverage of 33.8%. The largest 
contributor to this coverage was Porites lobata. The macroinvertebrate census noted three 
mollusk species (the rock oyster Spondylus tenebrosus, the cone shell Conus miles, and 
the pearl oyster Pinctado marginifera), one polychaete species (Spirobranchus giganteus 
corniculatus), and three sea urchin species (Echinothrix diadema, Echinothrix calamaris, 
and Echinometra mathaei). The photographic quadrat survey carried out on 26 August 
1996 noted a red sponge species (probably Spirastrella coccinea), the soft coral Palythoa 
tuberculosa, and four coral species with a mean coverage of 23.3% (Table 2).
The results of the fish census are presented in the Appendix. Twenty-seven fish 
species representing 266 individuals were censused on this transect; the most abundant 
species included Chromis vanderbilti, Scarus psittacus, S. sordidus, and a small school of 
yellowfin tuna or shibi (Thunnus albacares). The standing crop of fishes was estimated at 
868 g/m2, and the species that contributed the most was the wandering school of Thunnus 
albacares (92% of the total).
Station B  Kalihi Entrance Channel
Station B is located about 2.2 km seaward of Mokauea Island, which is situated in 
Keehi Lagoon, and about 900 m west of the old outfall, which is now used as an 
emergency bypass. The two transects at this station were established on a limestone 
substratum about 120 m east of the Kalihi Entrance Channel in water ranging from 13.7 
to 15.0 m in depth. Much of the substratum in the vicinity of this station is composed of 
sand and rubble. An area of low emergent limestone approximately 60 m wide ? 110 m 
long, with the long axis oriented perpendicular to shore, is present. Transect T-3 is 
located on the deeper end of this hard substratum area. Transect T-4 is parallel to but 
shoreward and approximately 8 m to the west of Transect T-3 (see Figure 3). The lack of 
appropriate hard substratum at this station necessitated establishing the two transects in 
an end-to-end fashion relatively close to one another (8 m apart). Because of this 
proximity, the fish censuses on both transects at this station are carried out prior to any 
other data collection. During our 1996 survey water clarity at this station was greater than 
15 m (Table 4).
Transect T-3 has an orientation that is perpendicular to shore on the limestone 
substratum in water ranging from 14.6 to 15.0 m in depth. A summary of the biological 
observations made at Transect T-3 is presented in Table 5. The quadrat survey noted two 
sponge species (Spirastrella coccinea and Plakortis simplex) with a mean coverage of 
1.4%, a soft coral species (Anthelia edmondsoni) having a mean coverage of 0.02%, and 
five coral species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora verrucosa, M. 
patula, and Leptastrea purpurea) having a mean estimated coverage of 2.6%. The 
macroinvertebrate survey noted two cowry species (Cypraea isabella and C. helvola), a 
polychaete species (Loimia medusa), the cushion starfish Culcita novaeguinaea, and two 
sea urchin species (Echinostrephus aciculatum and Echinothrix diadema). The 
photographic quadrat survey found two unidentified sponge species and three coral 
species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, and Montipora sp.) having a mean 
coverage of 0.4% (up 0.1% from the last survey).
The fish census found 25 species representing 160 individuals and an estimated 
standing crop of 157 g/m2. The most abundant fishes at Transect T-3 included the 
damselfish Chromis vanderbilti and a small school of mackeral scad or opelu 
(Decapterus macarellus). The fish species contributing heavily to the biomass on 
Transect T-3 included the wandering school of Decapterus macarellus (75% of the total) 
and the saddleback wrasse or hinalea lauwili (Thalassoma duperrey6% of the total). 
Transect T-4 sampled the benthic and fish communities present in the vicinity of the 
Kalihi Entrance Channel. As with Transect T-3, Transect T-4 sampled the limestone 
substratum at a depth ranging from 13.7 to 14.0 m. A summary of the biological data 
collected on Transect T-4 is presented in Table 6. The quadrat survey noted two algal 
species (Laurencia nidifica and Martensia fragilis) with a mean coverage of 0.1%, two 
sponge species (Spriastrella coccinea and Chondrosia chucalla) having a mean coverage 
of 1.4%, and four coral species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora 
verrucosa, and M. patula). Coral coverage was estimated at 4.6% (up 1.0% from the last 
survey), with Porites lobata and Pocillopora meandrina being the major contributors. 
The macroinvertebrate census noted the Christmas tree worm Spirobranchus giganteus 
corniculatus, and three sea urchin species (Echinostrephus aciculatum, Echinometra 
mathaei, and Echinothrix diadema). In the photographic quadrat survey one unidentified 
red sponge species and two coral species (Porites lobata and Pocillopora meandrina) 
having a mean coverage of 3.6% were seen. 
The fish census noted 20 individual fishes among 11 species (Appendix). The most 
common fishes present on this transect included the arc-eye hawkfish or pili koa 
(Paracirrhites arcatus), the smalltail wrasse Pseudojuloides cerasinus, and the lei 
triggerfish or humuhumu lei (Sufflamen bursa). The standing crop of fishes on Transect 
T-4 was estimated at 15 g/m2, with the important contributors including the bridled 
triggerfish or humuhumu mimi (Sufflamen fraenatus38% of the total), the lagoon 
triggerfish or humuhumu-nukunuku-o(,a)-puaa (Rhinecanthus aculeatus24% of the 
total), and Sufflamen bursa (21% of the total).
Station C  Reef Runway
Station C lies between 760 and 840 m seaward of the runway in water ranging from 
7.5 to 12.0 m in depth. The substratum of this area is a mosaic of emergent limestone 
spur and groove formations grading seaward into a series of low limestone mounds. The 
general orientation of the spur and groove formations is perpendicular to the shoreline 
and direction of usual wave impact. The spurs, which are 5 to 40 m in width and 30 to 80 
m in length, are spaced from 10 to 100 m apart. Sand is the dominant substratum in the 
intervening areas. The maximum topographical relief formed by these spurs is about 3.5 
m. Just seaward of this is a zone of low emergent limestone where patches of hard 
bottom 5 m ? 10 m to several hundred square meters in size are present. Spacing between 
these limestone areas is 10 to 50 m; again, sand is found in the intervening areas. Corals 
are restricted to the areas of hard substratum. Water clarity at this station was about 12 m 
during our 1996 visit; usually clarity here does not exceed 12 m. On 21 November 1996, 
the depth to secchi disk extinction was greater than the water depth (i.e., more than 12 m; 
see Table 4). 
Hurricane Iniki, which occurred in September 1992, caused considerable damage to 
the benthic communities at Station C. A large (approximately 60 m in diameter) sand 
patch located between Transects T-5 and T-6 had been replaced by coral rubble. Much of 
the hard substratum on both transects was broken and the underlying limestone rock 
exposed, and crevices and holes were filled in with coral rubble. These physical changes 
noted in the September 1992 survey were much the same in the November 1996 survey.
Transects T-5 and T-6 were established on spurs or ridges of limestone (see Figure 
4). Transect T-5 was established on a limestone ridge at a depth of 9.1 to 11 m. Table 7 
presents the results of the biological survey carried out at Transect T-5. The quadrat 
survey noted three algal species (Porolithon onkodes, Desmia hornemannii, and Amansia 
glomerata) having a mean coverage of 14.1%, two soft coral species (Palythoa 
tuberculosa and Anthelia edmondsoni) with a mean coverage of 0.2%, and seven coral 
species (Porites lobata, 
P. compressa, Pocillopora meandrina, Montipora patula, Pavona varians, P. duerdeni, 
and Cyphastrea ocellina) having a mean coverage of 3.7%. This coverage is up from 
3.5% in the previous survey. The invertebrate census found the papal miter shell Mitra 
papalis, and three sea urchin species (Echinometra mathaei, Echinotrix diadema, and 
Tripneustes gratilla) in the transect area. The photographic quadrat survey completed on 
29 August 1996 (Table 2) noted the crustose coralline alga Porolithon onkodes, the soft 
coral Palythoa tuberculosa, and four coral species (Porites lobata, Pocillopora 
meandrina, Pavona duerdeni, and Montipora sp.) having a mean estimated coverage of 
1.4%, which is unchanged from last year.
The fish census (Appendix) noted 166 individuals among 19 species. The most 
common species included Parupeneus multifasciatus, Acanthurus nigrofuscus, and 
Ctenochaetus strigosus. The standing crop of fishes on Transect T-5 was estimated at 72 
g/m2, with the most important contributors including Ctenochaetus strigosus (33% of the 
total) and Parupeneus multifasciatus (21% of the total). 
Transect T-6 was established approximately 80 m seaward of Transect T-5. The 
substratum at Transect T-6 was similar to that at Transect T-5 and is situated on a 
limestone spur that is about 40 m in width and 80 m in length. Water depth at this 
location varies between 10.7 and 11.6 m. A summary of the biological observations made 
on Transect T-6 is given in Table 8. The quadrat survey found two algal species 
(Porolithon onkodes and Cladymenia pacifica) having a mean coverage of 2.1%, one 
sponge species (Chondrosia chucalla), two soft coral species (Anthelia edmondsoni and 
Palythoa tuberculosa), and six coral species (Porites lobata, P. compressa, Pocillopora 
meandrina, Montipora patula, Pavona duerdeni, and P. varians) having a mean coverage 
of 6.6%. This coral coverage estimate is up from the 1995 estimate of 5.3%. The census 
of macroinvertebrates noted three species: the rock oyster Spondylus tenebrosus and two 
sea urchin species (Echinometra mathaei and Echinothrix diadema). The photo quadrat 
survey (Table 2) noted one algal species (Porolithon onkodes) with a mean coverage of 
3.9%, an unidentified red sponge species, and three coral species (Porites lobata, 
Pocillopora meandrina, and Montipora sp.) with a mean coverage of 5.0%. 
The fish census noted 234 individuals belonging to 30 species in the 4 m ? 20 m 
area. The most abundant fishes on Transect T-6 included Chromis vanderbilti, Scarus 
psittacus, Acanthurus nigrofuscus, and Ctenochaetus strigosus. The standing crop of 
fishes on this transect was estimated at 83 g/m2, with the largest contributors including 
Acanthurus nigrofuscus (24% of the total), Scarus psittacus (17% of the total), and 
Ctenochaetus strigosus (17% of the total).
Prior to Hurricane Iniki, green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were usually seen in the 
vicinity of Transect T-6. These turtles have been absent in this area since the hurricane, 
probably due to the loss of resting habitat by infilling (i.e., the resting site was completely 
covered with coral rubble). The coral rubble continues to move about with each passing 
storm. In 1994 coral rubble accounted for 10.2% of the substratum covered in the 
quadrats examined in the field. In September 1995 coralline rubble in these same 
quadrats covered 46.5% of the substratum and in November 1996, 42.1%, further 
decreasing the availability of local shelter for fishes and invertebrates. During the 
November 1996 field work, green turtles were seen in other areas (about 200 m east of 
Transects T-5 and T-6).
Physical measurements were made in the morning on 21 November 1996. These 
data are presented in Table 4. Little variation was noted in temperature (26.0 to 26.2C), 
percent oxygen saturation (102% to 104%), or salinity (all 34), despite the fact that 
measurements for oxygen and temperature were made both at the surface and about 1 m 
above the bottom. In all cases the secchi disk measurements did not yield an extinction 
value; water clarity was such that from the surface the disk was still plainly visible on the 
bottom. As has been suggested previously, a better method of determining water clarity 
would be to collect water samples and measure turbidity with a nephalometer in the 
laboratory.
The biological data for all seven surveys (1990 through 1996) are summarized as 
means for each transect in Table 9. The previous annual data are from Brock (1992a, 
1992b, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996). Differences are apparent for some of the parameters 
among the seven years. Some change is evident in the benthic measures (such as coral 
cover) between the 1991 and 1992 (pre- and post-hurricane) surveys, and this is to be 
expected. Despite these changes the KruskalWallis ANOVA shows that there has been 
no statistically significant change over the seven-year period. Specifically, there have 
been no statistically significant changes from the 1990 survey to the 1996 field effort for 
mean coral cover on a transect (p > 0.93, df = 6, not significant), mean number of coral 
species on a transect (p > 0.10, df = 6, n.s.), mean number of invertebrate species on a 
transect (p > 0.13, df = 6, n.s.), mean number of individual invertebrates on a transect (p 
> 0.94, df = 6, n.s.), mean number of fish species on a transect (p > 0.44, df = 6, n.s.), 
mean number of individual fish on a transect (p > 0.47, df = 6, n.s.), and mean standing 
crop of fishes on a transect (p > 0.91, df = 6, n.s.). Similarly, the StudentNewmanKeuls 
multiple range test demonstrated no statistically significant differences among any of 
these parameters between the six transects and seven sampling periods.
The biological parameters measured in the seven surveys (i.e., number of coral 
species, percent coral cover, number of macroinvertebrate species, number of 
macroinvertebrate individuals, number of fish species, number of fish individuals, and 
biomass of fishes) point to the fact that the Kewalo Landfill station has the most diverse 
communities, followed by the Reef Runway station. The least diverse communities 
appear to be at the Kalihi Entrance Channel station. This hierarchy has not changed over 
the seven survey years. The low biological diversity at the Kalihi Entrance Channel 
station is not surprising in view of the fact that this station was heavily impacted by the 
old shallow-water outfall until 1978 and that there is not much topographic relief to 
provide shelter at this location.
From a commercial fisheries standpoint, a number of important species have been consistently encountered 
in the vicinity of the Kewalo Landfill and Reef Runway stations, including the yellowstripe goatfish or 
weke (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), the yellowfin goatfish or wekeula (Mulloidichthys vanicolensis), the 
mackeral scad or o(,o)pelu (Decapterus macarellus), the squirrelfish or menpachi (Myripristis amaenus), 
and, in some years, the emperor fish or mu (Monotaxis grandoculis) and the grey snapper or uku (Aprion 
virescens).
DISCUSSION
Since their delineation in December 1990, the six transects have been visited on a 
number of occasions to ensure that, among other things, the permanent markers are 
remaining in place. During these visits reconnaissance surveys are carried out in the areas 
surrounding the selected stations. At a minimum, these qualitative surveys cover about 4 
hectares around each of the three stations. The resulting qualitative observations suggest 
that the marine communities sampled at the three stations are representative of those 
found in the surrounding areas.
The working hypothesis is that all three stations, being situated in relatively shallow 
water, are outside of the zone of influence of the present deep-ocean outfall. However, if 
impacts from the present deep-ocean outfall are occurring to the shallow-water coral reef 
areas shoreward of the outfall, our monitoring should be able to quantitatively discern 
these impacts. Because of bottom time constraints, potential dangers with deep diving, 
and the fact that coral community development is usually greatest in water less than 30 m 
deep, the placement of biological monitoring stations was restricted to waters up to 20 m 
deep in this study. Monitoring the shallow-water stations provides additional information 
regarding the recovery of these communities from the perturbation of raw sewage 
released from the old shallow-water outfall from 1955 to 1977. Dollars (1979) study 
showed that the Kewalo Landfill station was not directly impacted by discharge from the 
old outfall, but the Kalihi Entrance Channel station was acutely perturbed and the 
station offshore of the Reef Runway received an intermediate level of disturbance. 
Additionally, in the mid-1970s the construction of the reef runway must have contributed 
to the disturbance of benthic communities at this station (Chapman 1979). The result of 
these impacts is still evident in the average coral cover estimates made at these stations: 
the mean coverage offshore of the Kalihi Entrance Channel is only 3.1%, at the Reef 
Runway station it is 4.3%, and offshore of the Kewalo Landfill it is 26.3%.
The shallow marine ecosystem fronting Sand Island and Honolulu has received 
considerable perturbation from human activity over the last 100 years. Among the 
perturbations has been the disposal of raw sewage effluent in shallow water from the 
1930s until 197778, when the deep-ocean outfall became operational. From 1955 
through 1977 the shallow-water outfall released 62 mgd (3 m3/s) of raw sewage. Dollar 
(1979) noted two distinct zones of impact to marine communities: the area of acute 
perturbation was an ellipse 500 m to the east and 1,000 m to the west of the outfall. 
Outside this area the impacts were evident in a decreasing gradient with distance from the 
outfall. The maximal extent of impact attributed to this sewage input was 1.9 km to the 
east and 5.8 km to the west of the outfall. The ellipsoid shape of the zone of influence 
was attributed to the predominant westerly direction of current flow.
The Kewalo Landfill station is 4.75 km east and inshore of the terminus of the 
deep-ocean outfall, the Kalihi Entrance Channel station is about 2.1 km east and inshore 
of the terminus, and the Reef Runway station is about 3.25 km inshore and west of the 
deep-ocean outfall terminus (Figure 1). Presumably, the present outfall releases the 
sewage effluent below the pycnocline, and little interaction occurs with the inshore biota. 
Dollars (1979) findings suggest that if the material was carried to inshore waters, 
impacts to shallow marine communities would occur in those communities situated 
primarily to the west of the outfall.
The Kewalo Landfill station serves as a control station in this study; although coral 
coverage and fish community development are greater at this location, the station has 
received perturbations in the past. The two transects (T-1 and T-2) that sample the 
Kewalo Landfill station are situated close to an old, nonoperable sewage discharge pipe. 
Operations utilizing this discharge pipe ceased sometime before 1955; the pipe was 
probably used sometime in the 1940s (A. Muranaka, Oceanographic Team, Department 
of Wastewater Management, City and County of Honolulu, personal communication). 
The development of Kewalo Basin and the entrance channel in the mid-1930s would 
have created considerable turbidity that probably impacted this station, which is about 
200 m west of the Kewalo Basin entrance channel. From a historical perspective, human-
induced perturbations have probably occurred in all marine communities situated in 
shallow waters fronting Honolulu during the last 100 years. The Kewalo Landfill station 
was selected as the control station for this study because of its relatively diverse coral and 
fish communities, as well as its location well to the east of the present deep-ocean outfall 
(presumably out of the zone of influence).
On 11 September 1992 the Hawaiian islands were struck by Hurricane Iniki. The 
hurricane passed directly over Kauai, with sustained winds of 144 mph and gusts to 172 
mph resulting in considerable damage to improvements and forests on that island and the 
west (leeward) coast of Oahu. To a lesser extent, high surf caused damage to marine 
communities along the south, east, and west shores of Oahu, Kauai, Maui, Lo(,a)nai, 
and Hawaii; this damage was primarily to coral communities. In many areas a large 
amount of sand and other loose material was moved and/or advected out of the shallow 
areas (i.e., depths of less than 27 m) into deeper waters. On Oahu, storm waves 
emanating from the southeast were estimated to exceed 7 m in height and were breaking 
in water at least 20 m deep (personal observations). 
Storm damage to benthic and fish communities is frequently patchy, resulting in a 
mosaic of destruction (personal observations; Walsh 1983), and an occasional storm 
event generating high surf is one of the most important parameters in determining the 
structure of Hawaiian coral communities (Dollar 1982). Numerous studies have shown 
that storm-generated surf may keep coral reefs in a nonequilibrium or subclimactic state 
(Grigg and Maragos 1974; Connell 1978; Woodley et al. 1981; Grigg 1983). The large 
expanses of near-featureless lava or limestone substratum present around much of the 
Hawaiian islands at depths less than 30 m attest to the force and frequency of these events 
(Brock and Norris 1989). These same wave forces also impinge upon and impact fish 
communities (Walsh 1983).
Hurricane Iniki caused damage to coral communities at all three study sites. The 
greatest impact occurred to the benthic communities at Station C (Reef Runway), where 
portions of the Porolithon-covered substratum (up to 1 m ? 2 m in area and up to 0.75 m 
in depth) were completely removed. Other areas were entirely covered with coral rubble 
at scales from 10 m2 to over 30 m2. In some cases a blanket up to 0.5 m of rubble buried 
coral colonies or killed the lower portions of larger colonies. The hurricane broke many 
coral colonies into pieces; some of these have survived where they have been lodged into 
the substratum. These live fragments are responsible for the increase in the number of 
coral species seen in some quadrats between the pre- (1991) and post-hurricane (1992 
through 1996) surveys. This phenomenon (i.e., live fragments) also served to lessen the 
decrease in coral cover encountered in some of the quadrats where coverage was low 
prior to the storm. Despite these large changes, many of the benthic components 
survived, and these communities are recovering well, as evidenced in the increases in 
coral cover. However, since Hawaiian corals are relatively slow growing, it will be years 
before the impact of the hurricane will no longer be evident in the benthic communities at 
the study sites.
The hurricane also impacted the fish communities at the sampling sites. Coral 
rubble deposited in depressions serves to lessen the rugosity of the submarine topography 
(i.e., shelter) available to fishes. The loss of local shelter causes fishes to move and take 
up residence elsewhere. At the Reef Runway station, where considerable rubble was 
present, many of the resident fishes (such as the school of emperor fish or mu [Monotaxis 
grandoculis]) were no longer found on Transect T-6 after the hurricane. These fish had 
moved about 100 m east to an area where the coral and benthic communities remained 
relatively intact.
Despite the impact of Hurricane Iniki, the summary data in Table 9, which spans 
seven years (December 1990 to November 1996), show that there has been no 
statistically significant change in the biological parameters measured in this study. 
However, despite the lack of significant change, some parameters show high variability 
through time. Among these are the number of fish censused and the estimated standing 
crop of fish. These changes have been greatest at the Kewalo Landfill station. Relative to 
many other locations in the Hawaiian islands, the fish community is well developed at the 
Kewalo Landfill station. The high standing crop estimates in all years other than 1991 are 
much greater than for most coral reefs; the maximum fish standing crop encountered on 
natural coral reefs is about 200 g/m2 (Goldman and Talbot 1975; Brock et al. 1979). 
Three explanations for the high biomass of fishes at the Kewalo Landfill station are (1) 
the shelter created by the old sewage discharge pipe and growth of coral on this pipe 
locally enhances the fish community, (2) chance encounters occur with roving predators 
or planktivorous and/or other schooling species during censuses, and (3) commencing in 
the summer of 1993 a scuba dive tour operation began feeding the fish in the vicinity of 
the pipe. The fish feeding has resulted in an aggregating effect of some species such as 
the yellowstripe goatfish or weke (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), the bluelined snapper or 
taape (Lutjanus kasmira), and the black triggerfish or humuhumu eleele (Melichthys 
niger). 
Space and cover are important agents governing the distribution of coral reef fishes 
(Risk 1972; Sale 1977; Gladfelter and Gladfelter 1978; Brock et al. 1979; Ogden and 
Ebersole 1981; Anderson et al. 1981; Shulman et al. 1983; Shulman 1984; Eckert 1985; 
Walsh 1985; Alevizon et al. 1985). Similarly, the standing crop of fishes on a reef is 
correlated with the degree of vertical relief of the substratum. Thus Brock (1954), using 
visual techniques on Hawaiian reefs, estimated the standing crop of fishes to range from 
4 g/m2 on sand flats to a maximum of 186 g/m2 in an area of considerable vertical relief. 
If structural complexity or topographical relief is important to coral reef fish 
communities, then the addition of materials to increase this relief in otherwise barren 
areas may serve to locally enhance the biomass of fish. The additional topographical 
relief is usually in the form of artificial reefs, but any underwater structure (such as a 
deployed sewer line) will have a similar effect. The old sewage discharge pipe is set 
above the seafloor, creating considerable local topographical relief (about 2 m high) in an 
area where the maximum natural vertical relief does not exceed 25 cm. The shelter and 
high topographical relief must foster greater development of the fish community (see 
Brock and Norris 1989).
Chance encounters with large roving predators (such as the grey snapper or uku or 
[Aprion virescens], the emperor fish or mu [Monotaxis grandoculis], the amberjack or 
kahala [Seriola dumerili], the blue trevally or papio [Caranx melampygus], the papio 
Caranx orthogrammus), schools of planktivorous fishes (the mackeral scad or o(,o)pelu 
[Decapterus macarellus], the sleek unicornfish or kala holo [Naso hexacanthus], the 
spotted unicornfish or kala lolo [N. brevirostris], the milletseed butterfly fish or 
lauwiliwili [Chaetodon miliaris], the sergeant major or mamo [Abudefduf abdominalis]), 
or other schooling species (the yellowstripe goatfish or weke [Mulloidichthys 
flavolineatus]) may greatly increase the counts and biomass at a particular transect. The 
presence of the sewage discharge pipe serves to focus numerous predators and schooling 
fishes in the vicinity of the two transects at the Kewalo Landfill station; hence, an 
encounter with these fishes during a census will result in high biomass estimates. In 1990, 
at Transect T-6 (Reef Runway) chance encounters with a small school of Monotaxis 
grandoculis accounted for 51% of the biomass there, whereas at Transect T-2 (Kewalo 
Landfill) chance encounters with Naso hexacanthus and N. brevirostris accounted for 
40% of the biomass and with Seriola dumerili and Caranx orthogrammus, for 21% of the 
biomass. In 1991 Naso hexacanthus and N. brevirostris and some predators were present 
around Transects T-1 and T-2 but did not enter the actual census area while the counts 
were being made, thus they do not appear in the data. In 1992 the large school of 
Mulloidichthys flavolineatus that is resident to the old sewage discharge pipe made up 
78% of the biomass present on Transect T-1 and 93% of that on Transect T-2. In 1993 
this same school comprised 87% of the biomass present on Transect T-1 and 79% of that 
on Transect T-2. In 1994 Mulloidichthys flavolineatus made up 31% of the standing crop 
on Transect T-1 and 44% of that on Transect T-2. In 1995 this school of fish comprised 
68% of the standing crop on Transect T-1 and 72% of that on Transect T-2.
In the 1996 census an interesting encounter was made with a roving school of 
juvenile yellowfin tuna or shibi (Thunnus albacares) on Transect T-2. These fishes 
remained in the general area for the duration of our underwater sampling on 20 
November. The estimated weight of that part of the school entering the census area was 
63.9 kg and accounted for 92% of the standing crop at this transect. Encounters with tuna 
in shallow water are rather unusual, but if they do occur, it is usually in areas where fish 
communities are relatively well-developed, such as on artificial reefs. In general, these 
predaceous fishes are attracted to areas where there is a likelihood of encountering 
forage. The encounter with these tuna supports the point that the fish communities in the 
vicinity of the Kewalo transects are relatively diverse and well-developed. 
Making biological measurements underwater can often be a time-consuming 
process; use of the photographic technique lessens bottom time in measuring coral and 
other benthic species coverage. However, as noted by Brock (1992b), inspection of the 
results of the coral coverage data from visual assessment of quadrats in the field relative 
to the data obtained using the photographic method points out several things. First, mean 
coral coverage estimates are in reasonable agreement using either method, and the 
regression of visual versus the photographic coverage data shows a statistically 
significant relationship. However, the photographic quadrat technique does not discern 
small coral colonies or other small colonial benthic species such as the soft coral Anthelia 
edmondsoni; these are easily seen in the field using the visual assessment method. Both 
methods work, but the technique selected should be done so while keeping the objectives 
of the study in mind. This study will continue to use both methods.
The six transects selected for this study show a considerable range in community development that is 
probably related to historical impacts. Separating the impact of primary-treated effluent released at depth 
from a multitude of other ongoing and historical impacts that have occurred in and to the shallow marine 
communities fronting Sand Island is difficult at best. The added natural disturbance of Hurricane Iniki on 
11 September 1992 provided additional impact to these communities that varied tremendously with 
location. However, the siting of these permanent stations to capitalize on presumed gradient(s) of impact 
created by the variety of land-derived sources, as well as the repeated sampling of these permanent stations, 
should allow delineation of any changes attributable to the discharge of sewage effluent from the Sand 
Island deep-ocean outfall. The sampling of these stations during the first two years (1990 and 1991) 
showed that there was little change to the communities during that time, suggesting that there was no 
quantitatively definable impact to shallow-water benthic and fish communities due to the operation of the 
outfall. Many of the changes seen in the 1992 survey appear to be related to the natural storm event that 
occurred in September of that year. The 1993 through 1996 survey data suggest that recovery from the 
hurricane is well underway, particularly in the coral communities.
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