Central and Northeast India 1000 Year Stalagmite Oxygen Isotope Data ----------------------------------------------------------------------- World Data Center for Paleoclimatology, Boulder and NOAA Paleoclimatology Program ----------------------------------------------------------------------- NOTE: PLEASE CITE ORIGINAL REFERENCE WHEN USING THIS DATA!!!!! NAME OF DATA SET: Central and Northeast India 1000 Year Stalagmite Oxygen Isotope Data LAST UPDATE: 8/2011 (Original receipt by WDC Paleo) CONTRIBUTORS: Sinha, A., M. Berkelhammer, L. Stott, M. Mudelsee, H. Cheng, and J. Biswas IGBP PAGES/WDCA CONTRIBUTION SERIES NUMBER: 2011-102 WDC PALEO CONTRIBUTION SERIES CITATION: Sinha, A., et al. 2011. Central and Northeast India 1000 Year Stalagmite Oxygen Isotope Data. IGBP PAGES/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series # 2011-102. NOAA/NCDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder CO, USA. ORIGINAL REFERENCE: Sinha, A., M. Berkelhammer, L. Stott, M. Mudelsee, H. Cheng, and J. Biswas. 2011. The leading mode of Indian Summer Monsoon precipitation variability during the last millennium. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 38, L15703, doi:10.1029/2011GL047713 ABSTRACT: The "internally" generated intraseasonal variability of the Indian Summer Monsoon is characterized by intermittent periods of enhanced ("active") and deficient ("break") precipitation, which produce a quasi east-west precipitation dipole over the Indian subcontinent. Here we present multicentennial-length and near annually-resolved reconstructions of monsoon precipitation, inferred from absolute-dated and instrumentally calibrated speleothem oxygen isotope records from regions (central and northeast India) that have diametric responses to active-break monsoon circulation patterns. On centennial timescales (AD 1400-2008), precipitation variability from these two regions exhibit opposing behavior, oscillating between periods with a persistently "active-dominated" (AD ~1700 to 2007) and a "break- dominated" (AD 1400 to ~1700) regime. The switch between these regimes occurs abruptly (within decades) at a time (AD ~1650-1700) when a proxy record of upwelling intensity from the Arabian Sea suggest an abrupt increase in the monsoon winds. On the basis of these observations, we hypothesize that the frequency distribution of active-break periods varies on centennial timescales, implying a leading role of internal dynamics in governing the ISM response to slowly-evolving changes in the external boundary conditions. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES: Berkelhammer, M., A. Sinha, M. Mudelsee, H. Cheng, R.L. Edwards, and K. Cannariato. 2010. Persistent multidecadal power of the Indian Summer Monsoon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 290, Issues 1-2, pp. 166-172, 15 February 2010. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.017 Sinha, A., K.G. Cannariato, L.D. Stott, H. Cheng, R.L. Edwards, M.G. Yadava, R. Ramesh, and I.B. Singh. 2007. A 900-year (600 to 1500 A.D.) record of the Indian summer monsoon precipitation from the core monsoon zone of India. Geophys. Res. Lett., Vol. 34. doi:10.1029/2007GL030431 GEOGRAPHIC REGION: Central and Northeast India PERIOD OF RECORD: 1075 - 2008 AD FUNDING SOURCES: US National Science Foundation ATM 0823554 to A.S. DESCRIPTION: Stalagmite oxygen isotope (d18O) data from two caves located in central and northeast India, plus a composite Core Monsoon Zone stalagmite d18O record, composed of Jhumar Cave d18O data combined with previously published Dandak Cave d18O data. The instrumentally calibrated stalagmite oxygen isotope record (JHU-1) from Jhumar Cave in Central India provides a millennial length (AD 1075 to 2007) history of monsoon rainfall variations over the core monsoon zone of India (CMZ). The record contains 642 oxygen isotope measurements with an average temporal resolution of 1.45 years and its chronology is established by counting annual growth layers. A maximum uncertainty of ~10 years at the bottom of the stalagmite is inferred from multiple counts of growth laminae. A suite of 230Th dates were also obtained to test the annual nature of the laminations (Table S2). While all 230Th ages fall on or near the slope that describe the laminae-based age model, we did not use 230Th dates in constructing the age model because of high detrital thorium of JHU-1 stalagmite, which produced substantially large error in 230Th dates (2 sigma > 200 years). The multicentennial-length (AD 1399 to 2007) speleothem d18O record (WS-B) from Wah Shikar Cave in northeast India is established by 625 d18O measurements with an average temporal resolution of 0.97 years (Table S1). The record provides a history of monsoon rainfall variations over northeast India (NEI). The age model for the WS-B stalagmite is developed from seven 230Th dates, which are in correct stratigraphic order, with 2 sigma error ranging from 28 to 70 years (Table S2). Four additional 230Th dates produced unreasonably high error (> 100 years) and were subsequently discarded. The age model is developed by linearly interpolating between individual dates except for the segment between the bottom two dates where we calculated the age at the bottom of the stalagmite by extrapolating the age-depth curve from two prior better-constrained dates. The Jhumar Cave stalagmite d18O data provides a history of monsoon rainfall variations over the core monsoon zone of India (CMZ). The record complements our previously reported millennial-length (AD 625 to 1562), absolute-dated oxygen isotope record (DAN-D) from Dandak Cave (Berkelhammer et al., 2009; Sinha et al, 2007), which is located ~20 km west of Jhumar Cave. Both oxygen isotope time series were linearly interpolated to an annual timescale and averaged (over the period of overlap) to produce a composite oxygen isotope record that provides a continuous history of the CMZ's monsoon rainfall variations over the past ~1400 years (AD 2007-625) (Table S1). The composite record captures nearly every major drought during the instrumental period as well as historic failures of monsoon, including extended intervals of substantially weaker monsoon during the 14th and 17th century. The latter are independently corroborated by historical accounts and other regional proxy records. Site Locations: Jhumar Cave, Central India: 18°52'N, 81°52'E, 600 masl Wah Shikar Cave, Northeast India: 25°15'N, 91°52'E, 1290 masl Dandak Cave: 19°N, 82°E, 400 masl DATA: 1a. Stalagmite U-Th data for stalagmite JHU-1 Table S2 Sample Depth 238U 232Th 230Th / 232Th d234U* 230Th / 238U 230Th Age (yr) 230Th Age (yr,BP230Th Age (AD)** Number to top ( (ppb) (ppt) (atomic x10-6) (measured) (activity) (uncorrected) (corrected) (corrected ) JHU-1 2.5 97.8±0.2 2030±40 5.3±0.2 539±4 0.0067±0.0002 480±20 24±280 1926±280 JHU-1-2 18 113.1±0.2 1890±40 7±1 528±4 0.0074±0.0008 530±60 154±230 1796±230 JHU-1-3 25 97.8±0.2 2070±40 7±1 524±3 0.0096±0.0010 690±70 224±300 1726±300 JHU-1-4 48 118.7±0.2 1830±40 15±1 526±3 0.0145±0.0014 1040±100 684±230 1266±230 *d234U = ([234U/238U]activity – 1)x1000. ** d234Uinitial was calculated based on 230Th age (T), i.e., d234Uinitial = d234Umeasured x el234xT. **BP stands for “Before Present” where the “Present” is defined as the year 1950 A.D. Corrected 230Th ages for sample JHU-1 assume the initial 230Th/232Th atomic ratio of 4.4 ±2.2 x10-6. Those are the values for a material at secular equilibrium, with the bulk earth 232Th/238U value of 3.8. The errors are arbitrarily assumed to be 50%. The JHU-1 age model is established by laminae counting, which are inferred to be annual in nature. A number of 230Th dates were also obtained, but because of large error (> 200 years) due to high detrital thorium, these dates were not used in developing the age model (Table A4). 1b. Stalagmite U-Th data for stalagmite WS-B Table S2: U-Th data for WS-B. Sample 238U 232Th 230Th / 232Th d234U* 230Th / 238U 230Th Age (yr) 230Th Age (yr,BP230Th Age (AD)** Number (ppb) (ppt) (atomic x10-6) (measured) (activity) (uncorrected) (corrected) (corrected ) Sample WS-B WS-B-1 135.3±0.2 454±9 9±3 WSB-T 192.8±0.2 6140±120 9.7±0.3 WS-B-9 247.3±0.4 227000±4000 9.0±0.2 WS-B-10 331.2±0.7 333000±7000 8.8±0.2 WS-B-11 444.2±0.8 228000±5000 9.2±0.2 WS-B-90m 278.3±0.6 22700±500 9.9±0.2 WS-B-13m 180.0±0.3 2440±50 12.1±0.4 81±2 0.0100±0.0003 1009±30 200±120 1750±120 WS-B-2 190.3±0.3 284±6 31±5 83±2 0.0028±0.0005 285±50 144±50 1806±50 WS-B-3 188.1±0.2 870±20 19±2 83±2 0.0053±0.0006 539±60 224±70 1726±70 WS-B-4 200.2±0.3 1130±20 18±2 86±2 0.0062±0.0006 623±60 255±70 1695±70 WS-B-30m 260.5±0.4 14300±300 10.5±0.2 73±2 0.0350±0.0003 3613±40 470±500 1480±500 WS-B-5 293.1±0.5 1750±40 21±1 96±2 0.0077±0.0003 768±30 385±60 1565±60 WS-B-43m 307.2±0.5 8400±200 12.0±0.3 87±2 0.0199±0.0002 2010±20 440±240 1510±240 WS-B-6 244.0±0.4 2360±50 18±1 75±2 0.0104±0.0005 1055±60 460±100 1490±100 WS-B-7 344.9±0.7 670±20 53±2 82±2 0.0063±0.0003 634±30 467±30 1483±30 WSB-66mm 364.1±0.6 1000±20 40±1 70±2 0.0067±0.0001 685±20 473±30 1477±28 WS-B-8 253.4±0.3 5500±100 13.1±0.4 69±2 0.0174±0.0004 1786±40 510±200 1440±200 WS-B-90 271.4±0.4 3060±60 18.2±0.6 67±2 0.0125±0.0004 1280±40 590±110 1360±110 *d234U = ([234U/238U]activity – 1)x1000. ** d234Uinitial was calculated based on 230Th age (T), i.e., d234Uinitial = d234Umeasured x el234xT. **BP stands for “Before Present” where the “Present” is defined as the year 1950 A.D. Dates (in italics) were not used in the age model because of their large uncertainties. Corrected 230Th ages for sample WS-B assume the initial 230Th/232Th atomic ratio of 9 ±1 x10-6. This correction is based on a virtually identical 230Th/232 ratio of detrital materials measured at various depths (i.e., WSB-1, -T, -9, 10, -11 and -90mm). When applied the correction, all dates are in stratigraphic order within errors, further validating this correction. 2. Jhumar Cave (JHU-1) stalagmite d18O data Table S1 Jhumar Cave (JHU-1) (AD 2008-1075) Age d18O (per mil VPDB) 2008.0 -5.128 2006.5 -5.390 2005.0 -5.309 2003.6 -5.266 2002.1 -4.109 2000.6 -4.127 1999.1 -4.933 1997.7 -5.125 1996.2 -4.933 1994.7 -5.125 1993.2 -4.745 1991.7 -4.332 1990.3 -4.233 1988.8 -4.136 1987.3 -3.567 1985.8 -3.524 1984.3 -3.747 1982.9 -4.517 1981.4 -4.182 1979.9 -4.235 1978.4 -4.472 1977.0 -4.545 1975.5 -4.484 1974.0 -4.589 1972.5 -4.718 1971.0 -4.672 1969.6 -4.096 1968.1 -4.175 1966.6 -4.057 1965.1 -4.313 1963.7 -4.080 1962.2 -4.765 1960.7 -5.039 1959.2 -5.079 1957.7 -4.786 1956.3 -4.903 1954.8 -4.772 1953.3 -4.555 1951.8 -4.319 1950.3 -4.531 1948.9 -4.691 1947.4 -4.968 1945.9 -4.856 1944.4 -4.767 1943.0 -4.648 1941.5 -4.275 1940.0 -4.696 1938.5 -5.109 1937.0 -4.974 1935.6 -5.011 1934.1 -5.021 1932.6 -4.902 1931.1 -5.073 1929.7 -5.026 1928.2 -4.535 1926.7 -4.908 1925.2 -3.982 1923.7 -3.903 1922.3 -3.853 1920.8 -4.125 1919.3 -3.944 1917.8 -3.920 1916.3 -4.419 1914.9 -4.280 1913.4 -3.985 1911.9 -4.034 1910.4 -3.953 1909.0 -4.282 1907.5 -4.824 1906.0 -4.503 1904.5 -3.967 1903.0 -4.412 1901.6 -4.553 1900.0 -4.352 1898.2 -4.497 1896.3 -4.547 1894.5 -4.350 1892.6 -4.251 1890.8 -4.394 1888.9 -4.470 1887.0 -4.593 1885.2 -4.369 1883.3 -4.537 1881.5 -4.440 1879.6 -4.296 1877.8 -4.050 1875.9 -3.585 1874.1 -3.665 1872.2 -3.478 1870.4 -3.809 1868.5 -3.966 1866.7 -4.231 1864.8 -4.270 1863.0 -4.274 1861.1 -3.984 1859.3 -3.655 1857.4 -3.801 1855.6 -3.708 1853.7 -4.949 1850.0 -4.880 1848.2 -4.600 1846.3 -4.500 1844.5 -4.465 1842.6 -4.449 1840.8 -4.458 1838.9 -4.632 1837.0 -4.717 1835.2 -4.908 1833.3 -4.814 1831.5 -4.923 1829.6 -4.591 1827.8 -4.841 1824.1 -5.149 1822.2 -5.144 1820.4 -4.926 1818.5 -4.620 1816.7 -4.238 1814.8 -4.346 1813.0 -4.138 1811.1 -4.059 1809.3 -4.089 1807.4 -4.174 1805.6 -4.521 1803.7 -4.191 1801.9 -4.193 1800.0 -3.640 1799.3 -3.639 1798.1 -3.789 1797.4 -3.781 1796.8 -3.650 1796.2 -3.990 1795.5 -4.461 1794.9 -4.401 1794.3 -4.505 1793.6 -4.494 1793.0 -4.665 1792.3 -4.786 1791.7 -4.717 1791.1 -4.336 1790.4 -4.562 1789.8 -4.335 1789.2 -4.550 1788.5 -4.599 1787.9 -4.661 1787.3 -4.771 1786.6 -4.858 1786.0 -4.923 1785.4 -4.776 1784.7 -4.923 1784.1 -4.699 1782.8 -4.821 1782.2 -4.656 1781.6 -4.398 1780.3 -4.540 1779.6 -4.290 1779.0 -4.382 1778.4 -4.356 1777.7 -4.421 1777.1 -4.491 1776.5 -4.850 1775.8 -4.969 1775.2 -4.863 1774.6 -4.708 1773.9 -4.882 1772.7 -4.530 1771.4 -4.453 1770.8 -4.298 1770.1 -4.372 1768.9 -4.310 1768.2 -4.206 1767.6 -4.211 1766.9 -4.688 1766.3 -4.602 1765.7 -4.631 1765.0 -4.450 1764.4 -4.393 1763.8 -4.356 1763.1 -4.540 1762.5 -4.414 1761.2 -4.086 1760.0 -4.164 1758.4 -3.944 1756.8 -3.952 1755.2 -4.356 1753.6 -4.279 1752.0 -4.441 1750.4 -4.474 1748.8 -4.652 1747.2 -4.758 1745.6 -4.562 1744.0 -4.552 1742.4 -4.520 1740.8 -4.758 1739.2 -4.399 1737.6 -4.552 1735.9 -4.528 1734.3 -4.733 1732.7 -4.550 1731.1 -4.579 1729.5 -4.650 1727.9 -4.630 1726.3 -4.591 1724.7 -4.886 1723.1 -4.673 1721.5 -5.192 1718.3 -5.019 1716.7 -5.044 1715.1 -5.500 1713.4 -5.350 1711.9 -5.150 1710.4 -4.970 1708.8 -4.602 1707.3 -4.440 1705.7 -4.858 1704.2 -4.660 1702.6 -4.415 1699.5 -4.699 1696.5 -4.255 1694.9 -4.123 1693.4 -4.265 1691.8 -4.158 1690.3 -4.460 1688.7 -4.197 1687.2 -4.451 1685.6 -4.486 1684.1 -4.562 1682.6 -4.529 1681.0 -4.434 1679.5 -4.512 1677.9 -4.502 1676.4 -4.562 1674.8 -4.384 1673.3 -4.254 1671.8 -4.239 1670.2 -3.878 1668.7 -3.842 1667.1 -3.711 1665.6 -3.973 1664.0 -3.980 1662.5 -3.750 1660.9 -3.879 1659.4 -3.909 1657.9 -3.853 1656.3 -3.810 1654.8 -3.824 1653.2 -4.136 1651.7 -4.201 1650.1 -4.329 1648.6 -3.524 1647.0 -3.587 1645.5 -3.640 1644.0 -3.715 1642.4 -3.211 1640.9 -3.959 1639.3 -3.808 1637.8 -4.134 1636.2 -3.861 1634.7 -3.986 1633.1 -3.642 1631.6 -3.734 1630.1 -3.567 1628.5 -3.751 1627.0 -3.782 1625.4 -3.518 1623.9 -3.412 1622.3 -4.125 1620.8 -4.001 1619.3 -4.024 1617.7 -3.950 1616.2 -3.451 1614.6 -3.436 1613.1 -3.713 1611.5 -3.518 1610.0 -3.631 1607.1 -4.513 1604.3 -4.384 1601.4 -3.908 1598.5 -3.932 1595.7 -3.603 1592.8 -3.579 1590.0 -3.679 1587.1 -3.934 1584.3 -4.078 1581.4 -4.266 1578.5 -4.268 1575.7 -4.185 1572.8 -4.146 1570.0 -3.859 1567.1 -3.891 1564.3 -4.142 1561.4 -4.125 1558.5 -4.572 1555.7 -4.525 1552.8 -4.467 1550.0 -4.483 1547.1 -4.413 1544.3 -4.289 1541.4 -4.252 1538.5 -4.265 1535.7 -3.659 1532.8 -3.568 1530.0 -3.783 1527.1 -3.865 1524.3 -4.205 1521.4 -4.497 1518.5 -4.235 1515.7 -4.311 1512.8 -4.081 1507.1 -4.529 1504.3 -4.436 1501.4 -4.487 1498.5 -4.347 1495.7 -4.116 1490.0 -4.487 1484.3 -4.144 1481.4 -3.932 1478.5 -3.826 1475.7 -3.888 1472.8 -3.852 1470.0 -4.067 1467.1 -4.155 1461.4 -4.476 1455.7 -4.482 1452.8 -4.556 1450.0 -4.493 1448.5 -4.397 1447.9 -4.514 1447.4 -4.443 1446.9 -3.862 1446.3 -4.060 1445.8 -3.938 1445.2 -4.443 1444.7 -4.228 1444.1 -4.291 1443.6 -4.511 1443.0 -4.257 1442.5 -4.009 1442.0 -4.092 1441.4 -4.155 1440.9 -4.113 1440.3 -4.087 1439.8 -4.076 1438.7 -3.938 1438.1 -3.906 1437.6 -3.818 1437.0 -3.911 1436.5 -4.133 1436.0 -4.045 1435.4 -4.053 1434.9 -4.130 1434.3 -4.125 1433.8 -4.070 1433.2 -3.989 1432.7 -4.073 1432.1 -3.905 1431.6 -3.897 1431.1 -3.893 1430.5 -3.912 1430.0 -3.992 1429.4 -3.967 1428.9 -3.743 1428.3 -3.663 1427.8 -3.956 1427.2 -3.976 1426.7 -3.756 1426.2 -3.810 1425.6 -3.879 1425.1 -3.936 1424.5 -3.929 1423.4 -3.976 1422.9 -4.216 1422.3 -4.062 1420.2 -4.226 1419.1 -4.334 1418.0 -3.972 1417.4 -4.088 1416.9 -4.334 1414.7 -3.602 1413.6 -3.613 1412.5 -3.536 1411.4 -4.022 1410.4 -3.536 1409.3 -4.049 1408.2 -3.937 1407.1 -3.797 1406.0 -3.734 1404.9 -3.751 1403.8 -3.568 1402.7 -3.136 1401.6 -3.116 1399.5 -3.884 1398.4 -3.690 1397.3 -3.641 1396.2 -3.214 1395.1 -3.976 1394.0 -4.157 1392.9 -4.386 1391.8 -4.337 1390.7 -3.778 1389.7 -4.296 1388.6 -4.042 1387.5 -3.927 1386.4 -3.902 1385.3 -3.785 1384.2 -3.626 1383.1 -3.747 1382.0 -3.619 1380.9 -3.597 1379.8 -3.117 1378.8 -3.435 1377.7 -3.614 1376.6 -3.552 1375.5 -3.611 1374.4 -3.350 1371.8 -3.458 1370.1 -3.336 1368.5 -3.460 1366.9 -3.214 1365.3 -3.351 1363.6 -3.258 1362.0 -3.264 1360.4 -3.198 1358.8 -3.155 1357.1 -3.739 1355.5 -3.879 1353.9 -3.715 1352.3 -3.866 1350.6 -3.854 1349.0 -3.913 1347.4 -3.589 1345.8 -3.763 1342.5 -3.533 1339.3 -3.656 1337.6 -3.658 1336.0 -3.863 1332.8 -3.789 1329.5 -4.273 1327.9 -4.354 1326.3 -4.316 1324.6 -4.512 1323.0 -4.612 1321.4 -4.708 1319.8 -4.550 1318.1 -4.253 1316.5 -4.637 1314.9 -4.153 1313.3 -4.599 1311.6 -4.244 1310.0 -4.542 1308.0 -4.102 1306.9 -3.942 1305.9 -4.449 1304.9 -3.382 1303.8 -3.827 1302.8 -3.567 1301.8 -3.458 1300.7 -3.746 1299.7 -3.482 1298.7 -3.423 1297.6 -3.693 1296.6 -3.578 1295.6 -3.430 1293.5 -3.550 1292.4 -3.569 1291.4 -3.570 1290.4 -3.798 1289.3 -3.624 1288.8 -3.764 1288.3 -3.653 1287.3 -3.656 1286.2 -3.792 1285.2 -3.952 1284.2 -3.585 1283.1 -3.883 1282.1 -3.777 1281.1 -3.857 1280.0 -4.075 1279.0 -3.923 1278.0 -4.164 1276.9 -3.966 1275.9 -3.940 1274.9 -3.966 1273.8 -3.770 1273.3 -3.973 1272.8 -3.738 1271.8 -3.825 1270.7 -3.937 1269.7 -4.214 1268.7 -4.156 1267.6 -4.911 1266.6 -4.662 1265.6 -4.999 1264.5 -4.986 1264.0 -4.573 1263.5 -4.028 1262.4 -3.958 1261.4 -3.928 1260.4 -3.826 1259.3 -3.928 1258.3 -3.853 1257.8 -3.847 1256.2 -4.183 1255.2 -4.436 1254.2 -4.677 1253.1 -4.271 1252.1 -4.873 1251.1 -4.730 1250.0 -4.503 1248.5 -4.662 1246.9 -4.785 1245.3 -4.465 1243.8 -4.312 1242.2 -4.969 1240.7 -4.289 1239.1 -4.399 1237.5 -4.449 1236.0 -4.425 1234.4 -4.709 1232.8 -4.747 1231.3 -4.469 1229.7 -4.659 1228.2 -4.672 1226.6 -4.424 1223.5 -3.959 1221.9 -4.283 1220.3 -4.070 1218.8 -4.237 1217.2 -4.446 1215.7 -4.272 1214.1 -4.264 1212.5 -4.415 1211.0 -4.199 1209.4 -4.012 1207.8 -3.904 1206.3 -4.065 1204.7 -3.940 1203.2 -3.930 1201.6 -3.802 1200.0 -3.930 1198.8 -4.051 1197.7 -3.967 1196.5 -3.909 1195.3 -3.938 1194.1 -3.909 1192.9 -4.150 1191.7 -3.975 1190.5 -4.112 1189.3 -4.023 1188.1 -4.112 1187.5 -4.021 1186.9 -4.225 1185.7 -4.222 1184.6 -4.393 1183.4 -4.314 1182.2 -4.777 1181.0 -4.896 1179.8 -4.603 1178.6 -4.252 1177.4 -4.286 1176.2 -4.342 1175.0 -4.683 1173.8 -4.975 1172.7 -4.682 1171.5 -4.712 1170.3 -4.682 1169.1 -4.660 1167.9 -4.724 1167.3 -4.818 1166.7 -4.705 1165.5 -4.585 1164.3 -4.705 1161.9 -4.580 1160.7 -4.534 1159.6 -4.859 1158.4 -4.271 1157.2 -5.061 1156.6 -5.124 1156.0 -5.116 1154.8 -5.124 1153.6 -4.680 1152.4 -4.652 1151.2 -4.729 1147.7 -4.611 1146.5 -4.813 1145.3 -4.810 1144.1 -4.913 1142.9 -5.089 1141.7 -4.722 1140.5 -4.628 1139.3 -4.989 1138.1 -4.622 1136.9 -4.701 1135.7 -4.711 1134.6 -4.701 1133.4 -4.707 1132.2 -4.708 1131.0 -4.608 1129.8 -4.759 1128.6 -4.360 1127.4 -4.450 1126.2 -4.513 1125.0 -4.291 1123.8 -4.354 1122.7 -3.899 1121.5 -3.899 1120.3 -3.804 1119.1 -4.492 1117.9 -4.331 1116.7 -4.364 1115.5 -4.279 1114.3 -4.611 1113.1 -4.468 1111.9 -4.656 1110.7 -4.151 1109.6 -4.320 1108.4 -4.212 1107.2 -4.485 1104.2 -4.429 1103.6 -4.196 1102.4 -4.450 1101.2 -4.176 1100.6 -4.504 1098.8 -4.208 1097.7 -4.651 1096.5 -4.581 1095.3 -4.291 1094.7 -4.408 1091.7 -4.013 1090.5 -4.089 1089.3 -4.117 1088.7 -4.039 1087.5 -4.275 1086.3 -4.589 1085.7 -4.372 1084.6 -4.362 1083.4 -4.466 1082.2 -4.354 1081.0 -4.174 1079.8 -4.219 1078.6 -4.119 1077.4 -3.897 1076.2 -3.759 1075.0 -3.844 3. Table S1, WS-B Stalagmite d18O WS-B Stalagmite d18O record from Wah-Shikar Cave Age d18O (per mil VPDB) 2006.7 -5.456 2005.3 -5.131 2004.0 -5.207 2002.6 -5.231 2001.3 -5.512 1999.9 -5.228 1998.6 -5.410 1997.2 -5.513 1995.9 -5.170 1994.8 -5.267 1993.7 -5.350 1992.6 -5.508 1991.6 -5.440 1990.5 -5.515 1989.4 -5.635 1988.3 -5.719 1987.3 -5.880 1986.2 -5.992 1985.1 -5.595 1984.0 -5.845 1983.0 -5.747 1981.9 -5.873 1980.8 -5.690 1979.7 -5.510 1978.4 -5.173 1977.0 -5.121 1975.7 -5.156 1974.3 -5.222 1973.0 -5.201 1971.6 -5.276 1970.3 -5.210 1968.9 -5.301 1967.6 -5.343 1966.3 -5.240 1964.9 -5.244 1963.6 -5.283 1962.3 -5.318 1961.1 -5.411 1959.9 -5.427 1958.7 -5.595 1957.5 -5.275 1956.3 -5.290 1955.1 -5.333 1953.1 -5.524 1951.0 -5.960 1949.0 -5.640 1947.0 -5.407 1945.0 -5.555 1943.0 -5.288 1940.9 -5.250 1939.2 -5.196 1937.4 -5.230 1935.7 -5.322 1933.9 -5.355 1932.2 -5.472 1930.4 -5.501 1928.7 -5.602 1926.9 -5.487 1925.2 -5.307 1923.4 -5.030 1921.7 -5.010 1919.9 -5.020 1918.2 -5.110 1916.4 -5.105 1914.7 -5.182 1912.9 -5.241 1911.2 -5.444 1909.4 -5.591 1907.7 -5.687 1905.9 -5.738 1904.8 -5.656 1903.8 -5.684 1902.7 -5.920 1901.5 -5.981 1900.4 -5.949 1899.3 -5.697 1898.3 -5.557 1897.2 -5.538 1896.1 -5.690 1895.0 -5.662 1893.9 -5.617 1892.9 -5.523 1891.8 -5.434 1890.7 -5.335 1889.6 -5.104 1888.6 -5.307 1886.4 -5.203 1884.3 -5.378 1882.1 -5.428 1879.9 -5.706 1877.8 -5.794 1875.6 -5.691 1874.4 -5.446 1873.2 -5.490 1872.0 -5.746 1870.8 -5.339 1869.6 -5.318 1868.4 -5.395 1867.1 -5.479 1865.9 -5.741 1864.7 -5.662 1863.5 -5.461 1862.3 -5.376 1861.1 -5.165 1859.9 -5.149 1858.7 -5.201 1857.5 -5.202 1857.2 -5.207 1855.8 -5.287 1854.5 -5.506 1853.1 -5.694 1851.8 -5.368 1850.4 -5.720 1849.1 -5.231 1847.7 -5.814 1846.4 -5.229 1844.6 -5.661 1842.9 -5.518 1841.1 -5.291 1839.4 -5.232 1837.6 -5.267 1835.9 -5.747 1834.1 -5.888 1832.3 -5.866 1830.6 -5.805 1828.8 -5.857 1827.1 -6.088 1825.3 -6.173 1823.6 -5.967 1821.8 -6.071 1820.1 -6.005 1818.3 -5.878 1816.6 -5.903 1814.8 -5.829 1813.1 -5.671 1811.3 -5.804 1809.6 -5.528 1807.8 -5.252 1806.1 -5.286 1804.4 -5.278 1802.6 -5.030 1800.9 -5.120 1799.2 -5.132 1797.4 -5.321 1795.7 -5.245 1794.0 -5.149 1791.3 -5.141 1790.0 -5.143 1788.7 -5.191 1787.3 -5.755 1786.0 -5.652 1784.7 -5.503 1783.3 -5.492 1782.0 -5.656 1780.7 -5.808 1779.3 -5.443 1776.7 -5.663 1775.3 -5.605 1774.0 -5.485 1772.7 -5.308 1770.0 -5.359 1767.3 -5.582 1766.0 -5.093 1764.7 -5.316 1763.3 -5.442 1762.0 -5.351 1760.7 -5.379 1759.3 -5.163 1758.0 -5.228 1756.7 -5.520 1755.3 -6.012 1754.0 -6.050 1752.7 -5.724 1751.3 -5.773 1750.0 -5.856 1748.7 -5.802 1747.3 -5.580 1746.0 -5.646 1744.7 -5.545 1743.3 -5.492 1742.0 -5.355 1740.7 -5.350 1739.3 -5.476 1738.2 -5.451 1737.1 -5.914 1736.0 -5.505 1734.9 -5.281 1733.8 -5.029 1732.7 -5.229 1731.6 -5.345 1730.5 -5.185 1729.4 -4.884 1728.2 -4.779 1727.1 -4.658 1726.0 -4.811 1725.3 -5.117 1724.9 -5.405 1724.5 -5.843 1724.2 -5.545 1723.8 -5.239 1723.4 -5.450 1723.1 -5.239 1722.7 -5.291 1722.3 -5.054 1722.0 -5.188 1721.6 -5.651 1721.2 -5.507 1720.9 -5.524 1720.5 -5.644 1720.1 -5.234 1719.8 -5.082 1719.4 -5.249 1719.0 -5.118 1718.7 -5.140 1718.3 -5.358 1717.9 -5.128 1717.6 -5.037 1717.2 -4.729 1716.8 -4.743 1715.7 -4.804 1715.3 -4.740 1715.0 -4.920 1714.6 -4.848 1714.2 -4.825 1713.9 -4.841 1713.5 -4.902 1713.1 -5.063 1712.8 -5.165 1712.4 -5.101 1712.0 -5.329 1711.7 -6.043 1711.3 -5.831 1710.9 -6.401 1710.6 -6.492 1710.2 -6.555 1709.1 -6.558 1708.3 -6.144 1707.8 -5.854 1707.4 -5.718 1707.0 -5.808 1706.5 -6.047 1706.1 -6.271 1705.6 -6.144 1705.2 -5.901 1704.7 -6.142 1704.3 -5.505 1703.4 -5.743 1702.5 -6.061 1702.1 -5.939 1701.6 -5.978 1701.2 -5.136 1700.8 -5.078 1700.3 -5.451 1699.9 -5.452 1699.4 -5.414 1699.0 -5.908 1698.5 -5.542 1697.7 -5.808 1697.2 -6.071 1696.8 -5.974 1696.3 -6.205 1695.4 -6.292 1695.0 -6.029 1694.0 -5.870 1693.0 -5.973 1692.0 -6.160 1691.0 -5.899 1690.0 -5.465 1689.0 -5.886 1688.0 -5.738 1687.0 -5.566 1686.0 -5.640 1685.0 -5.471 1684.0 -5.351 1683.0 -5.718 1682.0 -5.530 1681.0 -5.739 1680.0 -5.657 1678.0 -6.017 1677.0 -5.786 1676.0 -5.532 1674.0 -5.424 1673.0 -5.582 1671.0 -5.423 1670.0 -5.363 1669.0 -5.410 1668.0 -5.650 1667.0 -5.558 1666.0 -5.318 1665.0 -5.769 1664.0 -5.765 1662.0 -6.302 1660.0 -5.894 1659.0 -5.662 1658.0 -6.578 1657.0 -6.398 1656.0 -6.335 1655.0 -6.030 1653.0 -6.322 1652.0 -6.296 1651.0 -6.746 1650.0 -6.467 1649.0 -6.604 1648.0 -6.947 1647.0 -6.898 1646.0 -6.789 1645.0 -6.852 1644.0 -6.978 1643.0 -6.975 1642.0 -6.992 1641.0 -6.686 1640.0 -6.690 1639.0 -6.560 1638.0 -6.456 1637.0 -6.648 1636.0 -6.644 1635.0 -7.241 1632.0 -7.118 1631.0 -7.017 1630.0 -6.894 1629.0 -6.745 1628.0 -6.305 1627.0 -5.685 1626.0 -5.763 1625.0 -5.608 1624.0 -6.253 1623.0 -6.349 1622.0 -6.245 1621.0 -6.437 1620.0 -6.547 1619.0 -6.370 1618.0 -5.462 1616.0 -5.644 1615.0 -6.240 1614.0 -6.575 1613.0 -5.764 1612.0 -6.219 1611.0 -6.118 1610.0 -6.654 1609.0 -6.357 1608.0 -6.305 1607.0 -5.768 1606.0 -5.578 1605.0 -5.562 1604.0 -5.817 1603.0 -5.850 1602.0 -5.924 1601.0 -5.612 1600.0 -5.627 1598.0 -5.406 1597.0 -5.748 1595.0 -5.494 1594.0 -5.977 1593.0 -6.090 1592.0 -6.030 1591.0 -6.416 1590.0 -5.881 1589.0 -5.868 1588.0 -6.233 1587.0 -5.770 1586.0 -5.767 1585.0 -6.359 1584.0 -6.237 1583.0 -6.066 1582.0 -6.183 1580.0 -6.170 1579.0 -6.203 1578.0 -6.176 1577.0 -6.230 1576.0 -5.787 1575.0 -6.413 1574.0 -6.232 1573.0 -6.221 1572.0 -5.968 1570.0 -5.664 1568.0 -5.573 1567.0 -6.244 1565.0 -5.989 1564.3 -5.747 1564.0 -6.581 1563.6 -6.796 1562.6 -6.887 1562.2 -7.060 1561.9 -6.893 1561.5 -6.862 1560.8 -6.939 1560.5 -6.819 1560.1 -6.518 1559.8 -6.246 1559.5 -6.487 1559.1 -6.495 1558.8 -6.369 1558.4 -6.375 1558.1 -6.253 1557.7 -6.268 1557.4 -6.644 1557.0 -6.693 1556.7 -6.663 1556.3 -6.347 1556.0 -6.468 1555.6 -6.617 1555.3 -6.624 1554.9 -6.745 1554.6 -6.742 1554.2 -6.560 1553.9 -6.404 1553.5 -6.179 1553.2 -6.392 1552.8 -6.649 1552.5 -6.810 1552.1 -6.207 1551.8 -5.789 1551.4 -5.669 1550.7 -5.561 1550.4 -5.662 1550.0 -5.697 1549.7 -5.680 1549.3 -5.629 1549.0 -5.559 1547.6 -6.361 1546.9 -6.464 1546.2 -6.501 1545.5 -6.265 1544.8 -6.244 1544.1 -6.529 1543.4 -6.722 1542.7 -6.948 1542.0 -6.804 1541.3 -6.607 1540.6 -6.310 1539.9 -6.210 1539.2 -6.124 1538.5 -6.471 1537.8 -6.512 1537.1 -6.257 1536.4 -5.735 1535.7 -6.137 1535.0 -5.647 1534.3 -5.768 1533.6 -5.616 1532.9 -5.800 1532.2 -5.641 1531.5 -5.717 1530.8 -5.557 1530.1 -5.520 1529.4 -5.517 1528.7 -5.654 1528.0 -5.584 1527.3 -5.734 1526.7 -6.178 1526.0 -6.243 1525.3 -6.205 1524.6 -6.277 1523.9 -6.190 1523.2 -6.125 1522.5 -6.215 1521.8 -6.577 1521.1 -6.251 1520.4 -6.613 1519.7 -6.716 1519.0 -6.682 1518.3 -6.714 1517.6 -6.555 1516.9 -6.220 1516.2 -6.577 1515.5 -6.511 1514.8 -6.102 1514.1 -6.476 1513.4 -6.567 1512.7 -6.303 1512.0 -6.182 1511.3 -5.946 1510.6 -5.701 1509.9 -5.618 1509.2 -5.811 1508.5 -5.889 1507.8 -5.685 1507.1 -5.736 1506.4 -6.103 1505.7 -5.953 1505.0 -6.090 1504.3 -5.636 1503.6 -5.676 1502.9 -6.337 1502.2 -6.397 1501.5 -6.225 1500.8 -5.674 1500.1 -5.530 1499.4 -5.475 1498.7 -5.559 1498.0 -5.472 1497.3 -6.007 1496.6 -5.795 1495.9 -5.929 1495.2 -6.220 1494.5 -5.907 1493.9 -6.119 1493.2 -6.686 1492.5 -6.542 1491.8 -6.219 1491.1 -6.329 1490.4 -6.163 1489.7 -5.704 1489.0 -5.719 1488.3 -6.103 1487.6 -6.453 1486.9 -6.243 1486.2 -5.982 1485.5 -6.475 1484.8 -6.245 1484.1 -6.302 1483.4 -6.705 1482.7 -5.923 1482.1 -5.929 1481.5 -5.712 1480.9 -6.145 1480.3 -5.807 1479.7 -6.208 1479.1 -6.266 1478.5 -6.153 1477.9 -5.891 1477.3 -5.924 1476.7 -5.712 1476.1 -5.850 1475.5 -5.973 1474.9 -5.974 1474.3 -5.926 1473.7 -6.166 1473.1 -6.131 1472.5 -6.592 1471.9 -5.948 1471.3 -6.142 1470.7 -6.068 1470.1 -6.110 1469.5 -6.709 1468.9 -6.169 1468.3 -6.077 1467.7 -6.850 1467.1 -6.353 1466.5 -5.777 1465.9 -5.799 1465.3 -5.870 1464.7 -5.797 1464.1 -6.087 1463.5 -6.478 1462.9 -6.487 1462.3 -6.546 1461.7 -6.559 1461.1 -6.688 1460.5 -6.613 1459.9 -6.841 1459.3 -7.091 1458.7 -7.097 1458.1 -7.091 1457.5 -6.521 1456.9 -6.661 1456.3 -5.864 1455.7 -5.919 1455.1 -6.066 1454.5 -5.928 1453.9 -5.901 1453.3 -5.930 1452.7 -5.986 1452.1 -5.986 1450.3 -5.762 1449.7 -5.761 1449.1 -5.630 1448.5 -6.074 1447.9 -5.706 1447.3 -6.749 1446.7 -6.912 1446.1 -6.617 1445.5 -6.418 1444.9 -6.726 1444.3 -6.328 1443.7 -6.542 1443.1 -6.463 1442.5 -6.535 1441.9 -6.603 1441.3 -6.462 1440.7 -6.144 1440.1 -5.943 1439.5 -6.298 1438.9 -6.196 1438.3 -6.115 1437.7 -6.107 1437.1 -6.154 1436.5 -5.648 1435.9 -5.603 1435.3 -5.579 1434.7 -5.723 1434.1 -5.618 1433.5 -5.586 1432.9 -5.798 1432.3 -5.763 1431.7 -5.986 1431.1 -6.564 1430.5 -6.583 1429.9 -6.469 1429.3 -6.120 1428.7 -5.628 1427.5 -5.319 1426.3 -5.456 1425.1 -5.412 1423.9 -5.644 1422.7 -5.417 1421.5 -5.288 1420.3 -5.660 1419.1 -5.329 1417.9 -5.472 1416.7 -5.259 1415.5 -5.748 1414.3 -5.979 1413.1 -5.812 1411.9 -5.770 1410.7 -5.657 1409.5 -5.483 1407.1 -5.588 1405.9 -5.758 1404.7 -5.618 1403.5 -6.169 1402.3 -5.805 1401.1 -5.589 1399.9 -5.607 1399.0 -5.722 4. Composite Core Monsoon Zone d18O record Jhumar Cave and Dandak Cave d18O (AD 2007-625) Age d18O (per mil VPDB) 2007 -5.422 2006 -5.362 2005 -5.308 2004 -5.279 2003 -4.820 2002 -4.110 2001 -4.122 2000 -4.459 1999 -4.950 1998 -5.080 1997 -5.041 1996 -4.955 1995 -5.086 1994 -4.945 1993 -4.684 1992 -4.405 1991 -4.283 1990 -4.216 1989 -4.150 1988 -3.836 1987 -3.558 1986 -3.529 1985 -3.649 1984 -3.929 1983 -4.449 1982 -4.320 1981 -4.196 1980 -4.232 1979 -4.381 1978 -4.493 1977 -4.543 1976 -4.505 1975 -4.518 1974 -4.589 1973 -4.676 1972 -4.702 1971 -4.656 1970 -4.267 1969 -4.126 1968 -4.168 1967 -4.088 1966 -4.163 1965 -4.293 1964 -4.135 1963 -4.381 1962 -4.796 1961 -4.982 1960 -5.058 1959 -5.035 1958 -4.837 1957 -4.845 1956 -4.880 1955 -4.791 1954 -4.658 1953 -4.507 1952 -4.347 1951 -4.437 1950 -4.569 1949 -4.677 1948 -4.854 1947 -4.938 1946 -4.863 1945 -4.801 1944 -4.732 1943 -4.652 1942 -4.407 1941 -4.412 1940 -4.696 1939 -4.975 1938 -5.062 1937 -4.975 1936 -5.000 1935 -5.015 1934 -5.014 1933 -4.933 1932 -4.972 1931 -5.069 1930 -5.037 1929 -4.810 1928 -4.578 1927 -4.830 1926 -4.473 1925 -3.970 1924 -3.917 1923 -3.878 1922 -3.901 1921 -4.085 1920 -4.030 1919 -3.939 1918 -3.923 1917 -4.198 1916 -4.386 1915 -4.292 1914 -4.107 1913 -3.998 1912 -4.031 1911 -3.984 1910 -4.049 1909 -4.271 1908 -4.632 1907 -4.720 1906 -4.503 1905 -4.141 1904 -4.123 1903 -4.416 1902 -4.511 1901 -4.480 1900 -4.353 1899 -4.431 1898 -4.501 1897 -4.528 1896 -4.514 1895 -4.408 1894 -4.326 1893 -4.272 1892 -4.297 1891 -4.375 1890 -4.425 1889 -4.466 1888 -4.530 1887 -4.587 1886 -4.466 1885 -4.387 1884 -4.477 1883 -4.519 1882 -4.467 1881 -4.402 1880 -4.324 1879 -4.211 1878 -4.078 1877 -3.851 1876 -3.600 1875 -3.625 1874 -3.657 1873 -3.556 1872 -3.519 1871 -3.698 1870 -3.841 1869 -3.926 1868 -4.042 1867 -4.185 1866 -4.245 1865 -4.266 1864 -4.272 1863 -4.274 1862 -4.122 1861 -3.963 1860 -3.785 1859 -3.676 1858 -3.755 1857 -3.780 1856 -3.730 1855 -4.088 1854 -4.756 1853 -4.936 1852 -4.918 1851 -4.899 1850 -4.880 1849 -4.734 1848 -4.603 1847 -4.551 1846 -4.507 1845 -4.480 1844 -4.461 1843 -4.452 1842 -4.452 1841 -4.457 1840 -4.529 1839 -4.623 1838 -4.673 1837 -4.722 1836 -4.825 1835 -4.898 1834 -4.848 1833 -4.834 1832 -4.893 1831 -4.835 1830 -4.656 1829 -4.677 1828 -4.813 1827 -4.907 1826 -4.990 1825 -5.073 1824 -5.149 1823 -5.146 1822 -5.117 1821 -4.999 1820 -4.863 1819 -4.698 1818 -4.511 1817 -4.304 1816 -4.277 1815 -4.336 1814 -4.254 1813 -4.141 1812 -4.097 1811 -4.061 1810 -4.077 1809 -4.101 1808 -4.147 1807 -4.252 1806 -4.439 1805 -4.421 1804 -4.243 1803 -4.192 1802 -4.193 1801 -3.936 1800 -3.640 1799 -3.678 1798 -3.788 1797 -3.693 1796 -4.108 1795 -4.411 1794 -4.501 1793 -4.660 1792 -4.748 1791 -4.364 1790 -4.403 1789 -4.563 1788 -4.651 1787 -4.808 1786 -4.923 1785 -4.860 1784 -4.708 1783 -4.804 1782 -4.579 1781 -4.459 1780 -4.429 1779 -4.382 1778 -4.395 1777 -4.553 1776 -4.939 1775 -4.814 1774 -4.863 1773 -4.624 1772 -4.490 1771 -4.357 1770 -4.366 1769 -4.317 1768 -4.208 1767 -4.650 1766 -4.616 1765 -4.446 1764 -4.369 1763 -4.512 1762 -4.284 1761 -4.101 1760 -4.162 1759 -4.025 1758 -3.946 1757 -3.951 1756 -4.163 1755 -4.345 1754 -4.297 1753 -4.342 1752 -4.441 1751 -4.462 1750 -4.519 1749 -4.630 1748 -4.705 1747 -4.735 1746 -4.612 1745 -4.558 1744 -4.552 1743 -4.533 1742 -4.575 1741 -4.724 1740 -4.586 1739 -4.414 1738 -4.509 1737 -4.544 1736 -4.529 1735 -4.648 1734 -4.694 1733 -4.581 1732 -4.563 1731 -4.584 1730 -4.629 1729 -4.644 1728 -4.631 1727 -4.608 1726 -4.646 1725 -4.829 1724 -4.794 1723 -4.702 1722 -5.024 1721 -5.166 1720 -5.112 1719 -5.058 1718 -5.023 1717 -5.039 1716 -5.231 1715 -5.495 1714 -5.402 1713 -5.293 1712 -5.163 1711 -5.045 1710 -4.886 1709 -4.647 1708 -4.517 1707 -4.513 1706 -4.782 1705 -4.765 1704 -4.632 1703 -4.473 1702 -4.473 1701 -4.565 1700 -4.658 1699 -4.620 1698 -4.476 1697 -4.333 1696 -4.216 1695 -4.131 1694 -4.207 1693 -4.239 1692 -4.170 1691 -4.319 1690 -4.412 1689 -4.241 1688 -4.318 1687 -4.455 1686 -4.478 1685 -4.518 1684 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